Fundamentals of Phonetics A Practical Guide For Students Larry Small

Fundamentals of

PHONETICS

A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR STUDENTS

Larry H. Small Chao-Yang Lee

Sixth Edition

Fundamentals of Phonetics A Practical Guide for Students

Larry H. Small

Bowling Green State University

Chao-Yang Lee Ohio University

Content Development: Shea Davis Content Management: Rebecca Fox Content Production: Deepali Malhotra

Product Management: Drew Bennett Product Marketing: Mark Marsden Rights and Permissions: Jenell Forschler

Please contact www.AskPearsonSupport.com with any queries on this content. Please contact us with concerns about any potential bias at https://www.pearson.com/report-bias.html You can learn more about Pearson’s commitment to accessibility at https://www.pearson.com/us/accessibility.html Cover image by oxygen/Getty images, MR.Cole_Photographer/Getty images Acknowledgments of third-party content appear on the appropriate page within the text. PEARSON and ALWAYS LEARNING are exclusive trademarks in the U.S. and/or other countries owned by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks that may appear in this work are the property of their respective owners and any references to third-party trademarks, logos or other trade dress are for demonstrative or descriptive purposes only. Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement, authorization, or promotion of Pearson’s products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the owner and Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates, authors, licensees or distributors. Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2016 by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. This digital publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise except as authorized for use under the product subscription through which this digital application is accessed. For information regarding permissions, request forms and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights & Permissions department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions/. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Small, Larry H., 1954- author. | Lee, Chao-Yang, author. Title: Fundamentals of phonetics : a practical guide for students / Larry H. Small, Bowling Green State University ; Chao-Yang Lee, Ohio University. Description: Sixth edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Pearson, 2025. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2024000118 | ISBN 9780138170233 (paperback) | ISBN 9780138285234 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: English language--Phonetics--Problems, exercises, etc. | LCGFT: Problems and exercises. Classification: LCC PE1135 .S49 2024 | DDC 421/.58--dc23/eng/20240112 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2024000118 $PrintCode

ISBN-13: 978-0-13-817023-3 ISBN-10: 0-13-817023-1

For dB For My family

—Larry H. Small —Chao-Yang Lee

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Preface

he idea to create this book began in 1996 out of the need to have a textbook that would provide sufficient practice to facilitate students’ learning of phonetics. It is hard to believe that this text has been revised for this sixth edition over twenty-five years later, now coauthored by Larry H. Small and Chao-Yang Lee. One of the guiding principles followed when creating the first edition was to ensure that anyone could pick up the book and understand the material. This principle has been followed in all subsequent editions. This sixth edition is quite similar to earlier editions in terms of basic layout and organization. Each chapter has been revised with updated material and new exercises. The book is filled with a wealth of exercises to ensure that students become experts in basic phonetic transcription of American English. Answers to most of the exercises can be found in the back of the book so that students can immediately receive feedback on their progress. It is not possible to learn phonetic transcription without having an abundance of listening exercises. Therefore, audio recordings of many of the exercises are available as Audio Practice files in the eTextbook. Print book users can now access these Audio Practice files by scanning the QR codes printed in the margins next to the exercises. These recordings are essential in helping students learn the subtleties of pronunciation, both in relation to the segmental and suprasegmental characteristics of speech.

New to This Edition ■

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Content has been updated throughout the text to highlight the latest phonetic research and theories. Learning objectives and study questions have also been updated to reflect these content changes. The postalveolar place of articulation has been added to the consonant phoneme chart in Chapter5, Consonants, to align with the International Phonetic Alphabet. As a result, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/, and /ɹ/ are now classified as postalveolar instead of palatal consonants. The glottal stop [ʔ] has been removed from the phoneme chart to reflect the allophonic status of the glottal stop. A description of the branches of phonetics is now included in Chapter1 to illustrate the multifaceted nature of phonetics. A description of typical phonological development has been included to contextualize the discussion of speech sound disorders in Chapter8, Transcription of Speech Sound Disorders. Multiple skin tones have been included in the anatomical figures presented in Chapters 3, 4, and 5 to represent the diversity of human speakers. Person-first language has been used consistently to highlight equity and inclusion. Chapter7, Connected Speech, has been reorganized in terms of segmental and suprasegmental aspects of speech instead of assimilatory, non-assimilatory, and suprasegmental aspects. The distinction between normal variation in speech and disordered speech has been clarified throughout the book. Normal variation is highlighted as an inherent and natural part of speech, which is shaped by anatomical (Chapter 3), acoustic (Chapter 6), contextual (Chapter 7), developmental (Chapter8), and regional/social/ethnic (Chapter9) factors. Chapter 9, Dialectal Variation, has been revised and updated with current census data relative to the population demographics of the United States. v

vi Preface ■

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Online resources have been updated to include additional websites that should prove beneficial to students’ understanding of phonetics. References have been updated to reflect current philosophies and best practices in the speech, language, and hearing professions.

Pearson eTextbook

The Pearson eTextbook is a simple-to-use, mobile-optimized, personalized reading experience. It allows you to easily highlight, take notes, and review key vocabulary all in one place—even when offline. Seamlessly integrated videos and other rich media will engage you and give you access to the help you need, when you need it. To gain access or to sign in to your Pearson eTextbook, visit https://www .pearson.com/pearson-etext. ■

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Audio Practice Files. Eighty-five audio practice files are embedded throughout the eTextbook to help you learn the subtleties of pronunciation in relation to characteristics of speech. These audio examples are connected with various practice exercises and transcription assignments throughout the text, providing you with an opportunity to check your understanding and apply what you have learned. Show/Hide. A show/hide feature within the eTextbook allows you to compare your responses to Exercises (in-chapter) and Review Exercises (end of chapter) to the solutions provided by the authors. Interactive Glossary. All key terms in the eTextbook are bolded and provide instant access to full glossary definitions, allowing you to quickly build your professional vocabulary as you are reading.

Instructor’s Manual

The Instructor’s Manual is provided as a Word document and includes resources to assist professors in planning their course. These resources consist of key terms, learning objectives, answers to end-of-chapter assignments, and a chapter test bank with answer key.

PowerPoint® Slides

PowerPoint slides are provided for each chapter and highlight key concepts and summarize the content of the text to make it more meaningful for students. Often, these slides also include questions and problems designed to stimulate discussion and to encourage students to elaborate and deepen their understanding of chapter topics.

Acknowledgments

L. Small I must thank the Department of Hearing, Speech and Language Sciences at Ohio University (O.U.) for providing the learning environment necessary for me to become knowledgeable in the area of phonetics while still pursuing my doctoral education many years ago. Because of my continued ties to O.U., I have maintained a friendship with Chao-Yang Lee, who agreed to serve as coauthor, bringing an exciting and fresh perspective to the sixth edition. I cannot thank him enough for his contributions.

Preface vii

I would like to thank all the previous Executive Editors with Pearson—Steve Dragin, Ann Davis, and Aileen Pogran—for their support throughout the first five editions. Many thanks to Director of Product Management Drew Bennett, who has been extremely encouraging and obliging throughout the writing of this text. In addition, we want to extend our thanks to the rest of the editorial team for this edition: Developmental Editor Shea Davis, Content Producer Deepali Malhotra, and Senior Product Manager Rebecca Fox-Gieg. A final thank-you goes to the reviewers for this sixth edition whose contributions greatly assisted us in the editing process: Nina Santus at the University of Georgia, Julia Thomas Swan at San Jose State University, Robert McKinney at San Diego State University, Sandra R. Ciocci at Bridgewater State University, Sonia Manuel-Dupont at Utah State University, and Stefan A. Frisch at Appalachian State University. C.-Y. Lee I am grateful to Larry Small for offering me the opportunity to work with him. I am humbled by my promotion from a reader to an author of the textbook that I have used for years. It is all the more meaningful that the book was conceived at Ohio University, where I am a faculty member. I would like to thank all my students over the years. Their questions, observations, and genuine interest in learning phonetics motivated me to be a better teacher. A special thanks to Faith Fedele for meticulously reviewing all the exercises in the book and discussing numerous transcription choices with me. I am also grateful to my colleagues in the Department of Hearing, Speech and Language Sciences at Ohio University for creating a supportive environment for professional growth. I was first exposed to phonetic transcription as a middle school student in Taiwan in the 1980s. My English teacher Ms. Wu used the Kenyon and Knott system to teach us pronunciation. As with anything teenagers are required to learn, it didn’t feel fun at first. But being able to decipher phonetic symbols opened up a whole new world. I could look up any word in the dictionary and sound it out. I could also use the phonetic symbols to write down the sounds of a word even when I didn’t know its meaning. That was really cool. I think it’s that sense of awe that motivated me to pursue what I study and teach today. Thank you, Ms. Wu, for getting me started. I am also grateful to my mentors Sheila Blumstein, Phil Lieberman, and Ken Stevens for showing me the breadth, depth, and beauty of phonetic science.

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Brief Contents 1 Phonetics: A “Sound” Science

2 Phonetic Transcription of English

3 Anatomy and Physiology of the Speech Mechanism

4 Vowels

5 Consonants

110

6 Acoustic Characteristics of Vowels and Consonants

170

7 Connected Speech

199

8 Transcription of Speech Sound Disorders

236

9 Dialectal Variation

282

References

329

Answers to Questions

333

Appendix

379

Glossary

381

Index

387

Contents Preface v

1 Phonetics: A “Sound” Science Learning Objectives

Phonetics and the International Phonetic Alphabet Variation in Phonetic Practice The IPA and Unicode Fonts Chapter Summary Study Questions

Online Resources

1 1 4 6 7 8 8

2 Phonetic Transcription of English

The Differences Between Spelling and Sound

Syllables and Their Components

Learning Objectives

Morphemes, Phonemes, and Allophones Primary Word Stress

Broad Versus Narrow and Systematic Versus Impressionistic Transcription Chapter Summary Review Exercises Study Questions

Online Resources Assignment 2-1 Assignment 2-2

3 Anatomy and Physiology of the Speech Mechanism Learning Objectives

The Respiratory System and Respiration The Laryngeal System and Phonation

The Supralaryngeal System and Articulation The Vocal Tract and Resonance Chapter Summary Review Exercises Study Questions

Online Resources

13 25 31 32 32 35 36 37 39

41 41 43 45 49 50 50 52 52

4 Vowels 53 Learning Objectives

Transcription of English Vowels and Diphthongs

English Vowel and Diphthong Production Chapter Summary Review Exercises Study Questions

53 96 96

101

Contents xi

Online Resources Assignment 4-1 Assignment 4-2 Assignment 4-3 Assignment 4-4

101 103 105 107 109

5 Consonants 110 Learning Objectives

110

Production of English Consonants: Manner, Place, and Voicing

112

Consonants Versus Vowels

Transcription of the English Consonants Chapter Summary Review Exercises Study Questions

Online Resources Assignment 5-1 Assignment 5-2 Assignment 5-3 Assignment 5-4 Assignment 5-5 Assignment 5-6 Assignment 5-7

6 Acoustic Characteristics of Vowels and Consonants Learning Objectives

Time, Frequency, and Intensity

Acoustic Characteristics of Vowels and Diphthongs Acoustic Characteristics of Consonants Clinical Application Chapter Summary Review Exercises Study Questions

Online Resources

7 Connected Speech Learning Objectives

Segmental Modifications of Words in Connected Speech Suprasegmental Aspects of Speech Chapter Summary Review Exercises Study Questions

Online Resources Assignment 7-1 Assignment 7-2 Assignment 7-3 Assignment 7-4

8 Transcription of Speech Sound Disorders Learning Objectives

Typical Phonological Development Phonological Processes

110 114 151 151 155 155 157 159 161 163 165 167 169

170

170 171 174 179 192 194 195 198 198

199

199 200 208 221 221 228 228 229 231 233 235

236

236 237 240

xii Contents Using Diacritics to Transcribe Typical and Disordered Speech

Using Non-English Phonemes to Transcribe Typical and Disordered Speech in English Suggestions for Increasing Accuracy in Phonetic Transcription Chapter Summary Review Exercises Study Questions

Online Resources Assignment 8-1 Assignment 8-2 Assignment 8-3 Assignment 8-4

9 Dialectal Variation Learning Objectives

Formal and Informal Standard American English Defining Regional Dialects Social and Ethnic Dialects

Learning English as a Second Language

Accent Modification with English Language Learners Chapter Summary Review Exercises Study Questions

Online Resources Assignment 9-1

250 261 266 267 268 271 272 273 275 277 279

282

282 282 285 295 298 313 314 315 324 324 325

References 329 Answers to Questions

333

Appendix 379 Glossary 381 Index 387

Chapter 1

Phonetics: A “Sound” Science Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you will be able to: 1.1 Explain the importance of the study of phonetics and the

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

1.2 State the reasons for variation in phonetic transcription practice. 1.3 State the benefits of using a Unicode font for phonetic

transcription.

Phonetics and the International PhoneticAlphabet

Learning Objective 1.1 Explain the importance of the study of phonetics and the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

As adults, you are all familiar with the speaking process. Speaking is something you do every day. In fact, most people find speech to be quite automatic. It is safe to say that most of us are experts at speaking. We probably have been experts since the time we were 3 or 4years old. Yet we never really think about the process of speech. We do not, as a rule, sit around thinking about how ideas are formed and how their encoded forms are sent from the brain to the anatomical structures responsible for speech production, such as the teeth, lips, and tongue. Nor do we think about how these anatomical structures (or articulators) move in synchrony to form words. Think about the last party you attended. You probably did not debate the intricacies of the speech process while conversing with friends. Speaking is something we learned during infancy, and we take the entire process for granted. We are not aware of the speech process; it is involuntary—so involuntary that we often are not conscious of what we have said until after we have said it. Those of you who have “stuck your foot in your mouth” know exactly how automatic the speech process is. Often we have said things and we have no idea why we said them. Phonetics is the study of the production and perception of speech sounds. During your study of phonetics, you will begin to think about the process of speech production. You will learn how speech is formulated by our articulators. You also will learn how individual speech sounds are created and how they are combined during the speech process to form syllables and words. You will need to learn to listen to the speech patterns of words and sentences to become familiar with the sounds of speech that comprise spoken language. A large part of any course in phonetics also involves how speech sounds are transcribed, or written. Therefore, you also will be learning a new alphabet that will enable you to transcribe speech

2 Phonetics: A “Sound” Science sounds. This alphabet, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), is different from most alphabets because it is designed to represent the sounds of words, not their spellings. Without such a systematic phonetic alphabet, it would be virtually impossible to capture on paper an accurate representation of the speech sound disorders of individuals seeking professional remediation. Using the IPA also permits consistency among professionals in their transcription of typical or atypical speech. Phonetics is a multifaceted field of study, containing several interrelated branches. Historical phonetics involves the study of sound changes in words. There is a constant mutation over time in the pronunciation of words in all languages. The way we pronounce words in English today is vastly different from the pronunciation of English from 300 to 1700 CE. For instance, between the 14th and 17th centuries, there was a marked evolution in the pronunciation of English long vowels. This change in vowel pronunciation is known as the Great Vowel Shift. Due to this shift in vowel pronunciation, the words we know today as “bite,” “beet,” “bait,” and “boot” were pronounced (prior to 1700 CE) as “beet,” “bait,” “bet,” and “boat,” respectively (Stevick, 1968). When saying a word, such as “phonetics,” there is an intricate interaction between the lips, the tongue, and the other speech articulators. To more fully understand the process of speech production, it is important to understand the individual role of each of the various speech articulators. Physiological phonetics involves the study of the function of the speech anatomy during the process of speaking. The knowledge of the muscles and innervation of the speech anatomy is especially important in fully understanding their operation during the production of speech. Acoustic phonetics, on the other hand, focuses on the differences in the frequency, intensity, and duration of the various consonants and vowels. Differences in the acoustic attributes of speech sounds allow listeners to be able to perceive how sounds, syllables, and words differ from one another. For instance, it is the specific acoustic attributes of the initial consonants in the words “mug,” “hug,” “rug,” and “thug” that allow listeners to tell them apart. Perceptual phonetics is the study of a listener’s psychoacoustic response (perception) of speech sounds in terms of loudness, pitch, perceived length, and quality. Experimental phonetics involves the laboratory study of physiological, acoustic, and perceptual phonetics. Laboratory equipment is used to measure the various attributes of the speech mechanism during speech production as well as to measure the acoustic characteristics of speech. The scope of clinical phonetics involves the study and transcription of aberrant speech behaviors, that is, those that vary from what is considered to be “normal” or typical speech. Disordered speech may be found in either children or adults who might have experienced a hearing impairment, fluency disorder, head trauma, stroke, or speech sound disorder. Considering the breadth and depth of phonetics, the focus of this introductory book is on how foundational knowledge of these interrelated branches can facilitate your learning of phonetic transcription. Some of these branches are discussed in independent chapters (physiological phonetics in Chapter3, acoustic phonetics in Chapter6, and clinical phonetics in Chapter8), whereas information about other branches is infused into the remaining chapters. Another “sound” science related to phonetics is phonology. Phonology is the systematic organization of speech sounds in the production of language. The major distinction between the fields of phonetics and phonology is that phonetics focuses on the study of speech sounds, their acoustic and perceptual characteristics, and how they are produced by the speech structures. Phonology focuses on the linguistic (phonological) rules that are used to specify the manner in which speech sounds are organized and combined into meaningful units, which are then combined to form syllables, words, and sentences. Phonological rules, along with syntactic/ morphological rules (for grammar), semantic rules (for utterance meaning), and pragmatic rules (for language use), are the major rule systems used in production of language. The idea of studying speech sounds may be an odd idea to understand at first. We generally think about words in terms of how they appear in print or how they

Chapter One 3

are spelled. We usually do not take the time to stop and think about how words are spoken and how spoken words sound to a listener. Look at the word “phone” for a moment. What comes to mind? You might consider the fact that it contains the five letters: p-h-o-n-e. Or you might think of its definition. You probably did not say to yourself that there are only three speech sounds in the word (“f”-“o”“n”). The reason you do not consider the sound patterns of words when reading is simple—it is not something you do daily. Nor is it something you were taught to do. In fact, talking about the sound patterns of words and being able to transcribe them is an arduous task; it requires considerable practice. Let’s try another example. How many speech sounds do you think there are in the word “street”? If you answered five, you are correct. As you will soon find out, the way you believe a word sounds may not be the way it sounds at all. First, it is difficult to forget our notions of how a word is spelled. Second, our conception of how a word sounds is usually wrong. Consider the greeting “How are you doing?” We rarely ask this question with such formality. Most likely, we would say “How ya doin’?” What happens to the word “are” in this informal version? It disappears! Now examine the pronunciation of the words “do” and “you” in “Whatcha want?” (the informal version of “What do you want?”). Neither of these words is spoken in any recognizable form. Actually, these words become the non-English word “cha” in “whatcha.” With these examples, you can begin to understand the importance of thinking about the sounds of speech in order to be able to discuss and transcribe speech patterns.

Exercise 1.1 The expressions below are written two separate ways: (1) formally and (2) casually. Examine the differences between the two versions. What happens to the production of the individual words in the casual version? Formal

1. Are you going to eat now? 2. Can’t you see her? 3. Did you go?

Casual

Ya gonna eat now? Cantcha see ’er? Ja go?

Phonetics is a skill-based course much like taking a foreign language or sign language course. In many ways, it is like learning a new language because as you learn the IPA, you will be learning new symbols and new rules to represent spoken language. However, the new symbols you will be learning are representative of the sounds of English, not their spelling. As with the learning of any new language, phonetics requires considerable practice in order for you to become proficient in its use when transcribing speech patterns. This text is designed to promote practice of phonetic transcription principles. At the beginning of each chapter, several Learning Objectives are listed. By reading through the Learning Objectives, you will have a clear idea of the material contained in each chapter and what you should expect to learn as you read through the text and complete the exercises. Chapter Summaries at the end of each chapter provide a summary of the Learning Objectives in a bulleted format. By now you may have noticed that exercises are embedded in the text. It is important that you complete the exercises as you go along instead of waiting until after you have completed the chapter. These exercises emphasize particular points by highlighting the material you just completed, thereby assisting in the learning process. If you are unsure of an answer, simply look in the back of the text for assistance in completing the embedded exercises. At the end of each chapter, you will find a series of Review Exercises so that you may gain expertise with the material presented. The Review Exercises help

4 Phonetics: A “Sound” Science drive home much of the material discussed in each chapter. All of the answers to the Review Exercises are located at the back of the book. Similar to the embedded exercises, providing the correct answers for the Review Exercises will give you immediate feedback, helping you learn from your mistakes. There is no better way to learn! To aid in the learning process, all new terms are in bold letters the first time they are used. In addition, all new terms are located in the Glossary at the back of the book. Study Questions at the end of each chapter will help you explore the major concepts presented. Online Resources also are provided to supplement the material presented in the text. Assignments at the end of the chapters were designed to be collected by your instructor to test your comprehension of the material. Therefore, the answers for Assignments are not given in the text. Several conventions are adopted throughout the text. When there is a reference to a particular Roman alphabet letter, it is enclosed with a set of quotation marks: for example, the letter “m.” Likewise, references to a particular word are also enclosed with quotation marks: for example, “mail.” Individual speech sounds are referenced with the traditional slash marks: for example, the /m/ sound. When a word and its transcription are given together, they appear in the following format: “mail” /meɪl/. Audio Practice files provide a wide range of listening exercises to accompany the text. Clinical practice generally requires phonetic transcription of recorded speech samples. Reading words on paper and transcribing them is not the same as transcribing spoken words. The Audio Practice files are designed to increase your listening skills and your ability to transcribe spoken English. Exercises requiring the Audio Practice files are indicated with a speaker icon in the text. The speaker icon will alert you to the presence of an audio file in order to complete the exercise.

Variation in PhoneticPractice

Learning Objective 1.2 State the reasons for variation in phonetic transcription practice.

Although the IPA was developed for consistency, not everyone transcribes speech in the same manner. The IPA does allow for some flexibility in actual practice. If you were to pick up another phonetics textbook, you would notice some definite differences in transcription symbols. Therefore, alternate transcription schemes are introduced throughout this text. One reason transcription practice differs from individual to individual is due to personal habit or the method learned. For instance, the word “or” (or “oar”) could be transcribed reliably in all of the following ways: /ɔɹ/, /oɹ/, /ɔ͜ɚ/, /o͜ɚ/, /ɔ͡ɚ/ All of these forms have appeared in other phonetics textbooks and have been adopted by professionals through the years. Several years ago I (the first author LHS) was assigned to a jury trial that lasted two weeks. Due to the length of the trial, the judge allowed us to take notes. So that no one could read my notes, I decided to use the IPA! Because I had to write quickly, my transcription habits changed. At the beginning of the trial, I transcribed the word “or” as /ɔ͜ɚ/ due to personal preference. By the middle of the trial, I had switched to /ɔɹ/, simply because it was easier to write and more time efficient. Another difference in ease of use of transcription symbols involves the symbol /r/, traditionally used to transcribe the initial sound in the word “red.” According to the IPA, this sound actually should be transcribed with the symbol /ɹ/. The IPA symbol /r/ represents a trill, a sound found in Spanish and other languages but not part of the English speech sound system. Because /r/ and /ɹ/ both do not exist in English, /r/ often is substituted simply because it is easier to write. In previous editions of this text, /r/ was used to represent “r” sounds in English words. However, with the ever-increasing number of Spanish speakers in the United States,

Chapter One 5

it has become increasingly important that these two symbols remain distinct; that is, /r/ should be reserved for trills, and /ɹ/ should be reserved for “r” sounds, as in the words “red,” “around,” and “street.” Therefore, in this edition, /ɹ/ is used to represent English “r” sounds. As future speech and hearing professionals, you will be using the IPA to transcribe clients with speech sound disorders. Because the IPA was not originally designed for this purpose, clinicians have varied in their choice of symbols in transcription of speech sound disorders. In 1990, an extended set of phonetic symbols (known as the extIPA) was created as a supplement to the IPA to provide a more standard method for transcription of speech sound disorders(refer to Chapter8). Similar to the original IPA, the extIPA has not been used consistently among phoneticians, linguists, and speech and hearing professionals. Is one method of transcription “better” or more correct than another? Some linguists and phoneticians might argue that one form is superior to another based on linguistic, phonological, or acoustic theory. The form of transcription you adopt is not important as long as you understand the underlying rationale for your choice of symbols. In addition, you need to make sure that you are consistent and accurate in the use of the symbols you adopt. Throughout this text, variant transcriptions are introduced to increase your familiarity with the different symbols you may encounter in actual clinical practice in the future.

A Note on Pronunciation andDialect

As you read this text and as you attempt to answer the various exercises, please keep in mind that English pronunciation varies depending on individual speaking style as well as on dialect. Individual speaking style is determined by a person’s physical characteristics, conversational purpose, and emotional state. Just as the meaning of a written word can be conveyed by fonts of different sizes, colors, or shapes, the meaning of a spoken word can be conveyed by sounds produced with different speaking styles. For instance, the word “phonetics” may be pronounced with a higher pitch and longer length by one speaker but a lower pitch and shorter length by another speaker. These variations are perfectly natural and acceptable as long as speakers of the language understand the meaning of the word. A dialect is a variation of speech or language based on geographical area, native language background, and social or racial-ethnic group membership. Dialect involves not only pronunciation of words but also grammar (syntax) and vocabulary usage. As you will learn in Chapter9, there is no one fixed standard of English in the United States as is the case in other countries. Instead, Americans speak several different varieties of English depending on the region of the country in which they live. Additionally, dialects such as African American English and Mexican American English have particularly strong ties to racial-ethnic group membership even though regional variations do exist among these dialects. The population of the United States contains many foreign-born residents who have learned English as a second language. The dialect of English spoken by foreign-born individuals is affected, at least in part, by their native language. This is because other languages have a different set of speech sounds than those of English. There are sounds that are present in English that are not present in other languages, and vice versa. For example, English has 14 vowels, whereas Spanish has only five vowels. Therefore, when a native Spanish speaker is learning English, it is not uncommon for the speaker to substitute one of the five Spanish vowels for an English vowel that does not exist in the Spanish vowel system, contributing to the person’s “accent.” Similarly, Spanish vowels produced by a native English speaker are likely to be “accented” because of the influence of the English vowels. Research on second-language speech learning shows that the influence of native language is systematic and predictable, but the degree of the influence varies across individual speakers (Wayland, 2021). Knowledge of individual and dialectal variations is one of the many benefits of learning phonetics. The knowledge helps you identify your own dialect, develop speech sound awareness, and appreciate linguistic diversity. Knowledge of dialects

6 Phonetics: A “Sound” Science is also extremely important when establishing a treatment plan for individuals with a communication deficit and whose speech patterns reflect regional or racial-ethnic dialectal variation. Because a dialect should not be considered a substandard form of English, a speech-language pathologist should be concerned only with remediation of clients’ speech sound errors, not their dialects. The pronunciations used in this text often reflect the first author’s (LHS) Midwest (northern Ohio) pronunciation patterns. This does not mean that alternate pronunciations are wrong! The numerous text and recorded examples, as well as the answer key, may not be indicative of the way you pronounce a particular word or sentence. Always check with your instructor for alternate pronunciations of the materials found in this text and in the Audio Practice files.

The IPA and UnicodeFonts

Learning Objective 1.3 State the benefits of using a Unicode font for phonetic transcription.

Historically, the typical typewriter or computer did not lend itself well to the IPA. Some keyboard symbols were routinely substituted for IPA symbols simply because typewriters and computer keyboards did not have keys for many of the IPA symbols. For example, the word “dot” was typically transcribed (i.e.,typed) as /dat/ instead of the correct form /dɑt/ because it simply was not possible to type the vowel symbol /ɑ/. You may not know it, but you already have the ability to type IPA symbols with one of the fonts located on your computer. In 1991, the Unicode Consortium was established to develop a universal character set that would represent all of the world’s languages. The consortium continues to publish the Unicode Standard, which in its most recent version—version 15.0.1—covers virtually all of the characters of all the languages of the world, including several character sets for the IPA. In addition, there are character sets for currency symbols, braille patterns, geometric shapes, musical symbols, mathematical symbols, and even emojis. Version 15.0.1 of the Unicode Standard contains a total of 149,813 characters, including 627 new characters when compared to the previous version of the standard. Each character is mapped to a unique alphanumeric sequence called a code point. A code point is a hexadecimal sequence of numbers (0 through 9) and/ or letters (“a” through “f”) that uniquely identify each of the characters in the set. Each character also has a unique name. For instance, the code point for the Roman letter “j” is 006A, and its name is “Latin small letter j.” Similarly, the code point for the Greek letter “θ” is 03B8, and its name is “Greek small letter theta.” Since each character in the universal set is linked to an alphanumeric sequence, the word processor and font you select will determine the “look” of each individual character, that is, what appears on your monitor and what is reproduced by your printer. Keep in mind that any one particular Unicode font does not contain all of the code points from the universal set. The nice thing about Unicode fonts is that they can be used on multiple platforms (e.g.,Macintosh, Windows, Linux) and with all word processing software packages. Unicode fonts also can be used when creating HTML documents for online use. In the past, cross-platform fonts did not exist. Also, there was a limit to the number of characters contained in any one font package; most fonts were limited to 256 characters. Fonts of different languages existed separately as well, making it difficult to switch between writing systems in the same document. Another advantage of using a Unicode font with IPA symbols is that once the symbols have been typed into a particular document, you can switch to a different Unicode font and all of the symbols will remain intact. The only difference in appearance between fonts would be related to a particular font’s size and shape and whether it is a serif or sans serif font. Prior to the utilization of Unicode, it was not possible to switch fonts without obliterating all of the IPA symbols in a document. Trust us, we know!

Chapter One 7

A number of Unicode phonetic fonts are available online. Many are available for free and are really quite easy to download and use. The phonetic symbols in this text were created with Charis SIL, a Unicode font available from SIL International (refer to the “Online Resources” at the end of this chapter). This font contains over 2,000 characters. Doulos SIL and Gentium are two other Unicode phonetic fonts available for free from the SIL International website. There are three ways to enter IPA symbols from a Unicode font into a document: (1) make use of software that creates an alternate keyboard layout, (2) enter the code point for each IPA symbol, or (3) insert each symbol individually by using character maps available as part of the Windows and Macintosh operating systems. The easiest method is to use an alternate keyboard layout. I obtained a specialized keyboard for entering the IPA symbols in this text from the website of University College London Psychology and Language Sciences (refer to the “Online Resources” at the end of the chapter). Once the keyboard was installed, all I had to do to enter the symbol /ʃ/ was to simply type SHIFT+“s.” Without such a keyboard, it would be necessary to type the unique code point for each character (which is a tedious and time-consuming task). In Microsoft Word (Windows), you would have to type the four-character code point, followed by the sequence ALT+“x,” for entry of a particular symbol. For instance, typing the sequence “0283” followed by ALT+“x” will yield the IPA symbol /ʃ/ (without the slash marks). With Mac OS, you would need to go to System Preferences; select Keyboard, Input Sources; and then Unicode Hex Input. Also, select show input menu in menu bar. Once Unicode Hex Input is selected, hold down the ALT key, and type the code point sequence for the particular phonetic symbol you want. Alternatively, you could use the “insert symbol” function (Windows) or use the “character viewer” (Macintosh) to enter the symbols individually from a character map that shows all of the symbols associated with a particular font. This process is much more tedious and time-consuming. In addition to these methods, there are also websites (for instance, https://ipa. typeit.org/) that allow users to select IPA symbols from a menu, type the symbols in a text box, and copy-paste the symbols to a word processor, email message, or other applications. These web-based services do not require using character maps or installing additional software/keyboards on your computer.

Exercise 1.2 Configure your computer so that you can enter code points into a text document (refer to the “Online Resources” at the end of the chapter for help). Then enter the following code points and write the corresponding IPA symbols in the blanks provided. Code Point 1. 0259 2. 03B8 3. 028A 4. 0271 5. 0279

IPA Symbol

Chapter Summary ■

Phonetics involves the study of how speech sounds are produced, how individual speech sounds are combined to form syllables and words, and the instruction of phonetic transcription for manually recording spoken utterances. The International

Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a unique alphabet designed to represent the sounds of words of a language, not the spelling of words. Use of the IPA permits consistency among professionals in their transcription of typical or atypical speech.

8 Phonetics: A “Sound” Science ■

Variation in phonetic transcription exists for several reasons, including differences in methods learned, personal habit, how strictly the IPA is followed, and which symbols are adopted for transcribing disordered speech.

■

The use of a Unicode font is useful when transcribing speech by computer. Unicode fonts provide a universal character set of over 137,000 characters (mapped to a unique alphanumeric code point), including the IPA. Unicode fonts can be used on multiple platforms including Macintosh, Windows, and Linux.

Study Questions 1. What is a phonetic alphabet? 2. Why is it important to use a phonetic alphabet in transcription of individuals with speech sound disorders? 3. Why is there variation in phonetic transcription from professional to professional? 4. Why is it important to understand how individual speaking style and dialect affect pronunciation? 5. What is the difference between phonetics and phonology? 6. What is a Unicode font? What are the advantages of using such a font? 7. What are three ways you can enter phonetic symbols into a document using a Unicode font?

Online Resources Search online for Symbol Codes Home Penn State University. This website provides several resources related to phonetic fonts and keyboards for both Windows and Macintosh. Search online for SIL International. From the organization’s website, select “Language Services” then under “Resources” click “Software & Fonts” for a vast list of phonetic font resources, including downloads for the Unicode fonts Charis SIL and Doulos SIL. Search online for The Unicode Consortium for information regarding the most current Unicode standard, access to character code charts for all the world’s languages, the IPA, and many different symbol and character sets. Search online for Resources and Tools in Speech, Hearing, and Phonetics-UCL from University College London’s website. From this site, click the link for “More information” under “Phonetics and Phonetic Symbols.” This site has a wealth of information relating to Unicode fonts and keyboarding.

Chapter 2

Phonetic Transcription ofEnglish Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you will be able to: 2.1 Explain the differences between spelling and sound in English. 2.2 Describe the importance of morphemes, phonemes, and allophones in

phonetics.

2.3 Define and describe the components of a syllable. 2.4 Identify primary stress in words. 2.5 Describe the differences between broad and narrow transcription

and between systematic and impressionistic transcription.

As you begin your study of phonetics, it is extremely important to think about words in terms of how they sound and not in terms of how they are spelled. As you begin your study of phonetics, it is extremely important to think about words in terms of how they sound and not in terms of how they are spelled. The repetition of this first sentence is not a typographical error. The importance of this concept cannot be stressed enough. You must ignore the spelling of words and concentrate only on speech sounds. If you have been troubled in the past with your inability to spell, do not fear—phonetics is the one course where spelling is highly discouraged. For many, ignoring spelling and focusing only on the sounds of words will be a difficult task. Most of us started to spell in preschool or kindergarten as we learned to read. It was drilled into our heads that “cat” was spelled C-A-T and “dog” was spelled D-O-G. Consequently, we learned to connect the spoken (or printed) words with their respective spellings. Imagine the following fictitious scenario between a parent and child reading along together before bedtime: “OK, Mary. Now, let’s think about the word ‘cat.’ It’s spelled C-A-T, but the first speech sound is a /k/ as in ‘king,’ the second sound is an /æ/ as in ‘apple,’ and the third sound is a /t/ as in ‘table.’ Notice that the first sound is really a /k/ even though the word begins with the letter ‘c.’ When ‘c’ begins a word, it may sound like /k/ or it may sound like /s/, as in the word ‘city.’ Actually, Mary, there is no phonetic symbol in English that uses the printed letter ‘c.’” Obviously, this type of interchange would cause children to lose any desire to read!

10 Phonetic Transcription ofEnglish

The Differences Between Spelling andSound

Learning Objective 2.1 Explain the differences between spelling and sound in English.

The English language, as we know it today, reflects significant historical changes that occurred during its three major developmental periods: Old English (300–1150 CE), Middle English (1150–1500 CE), and Modern English (since 1500 CE). The period between 300 and 500 CE marked both the end of the Roman Empire and the invasion of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons. In the 600s, the Roman alphabet was introduced to the Anglo-Saxons by Christian missionaries. Anglo-Saxon monks first adopted the Roman alphabet to transcribe Old English. The Roman alphabet was originally used to transcribe Latin. It was particularly well suited to represent Latin since there was a separate letter for each individual Latin speech sound. An alphabet that maintains a one-to-one relationship between a sound and a particular alphabet letter is known as a phonetic alphabet. The Norman Conquest of England occurred during the late Old English period. English began to disappear as French became the official language. During the early Middle English period, English no longer appeared in a written form; all writing was in either French or Latin. French scribes attempted to transcribe Old English using their own French speaking patterns. As such, changes in spelling began to reflect the French influence. However, the alphabet contained both Old English and French letters. Modern spelling began to be formalized by the end of the Middle English period and the beginning of the Modern period. Scribes copied forms used by their predecessors and adopted spelling conventions with little regard for pronunciation changes; the Roman alphabet was no longer alphabetic. Also, with the advent of printing, the spelling of words began to become more standard. Since many of the first printers were from other countries, they used their own spelling conventions. Words were often contracted or abbreviated in their spellings, and words were given extra letters instead of using spaces in order to make sure the lines of print on the page were lined up properly, or justified. Contemporary spelling conventions also reflect letters in words that were once pronounced but have become “silent” over time. For example, the final sound in the word “plumb” has no connection to its pronunciation. Consequently, “plumb” has only four speech sounds but five printed letters, or graphemes. Silent letters also can be found in the words “gnome,” “psychosis,” “rhombus,” and “pneumonia.”

Exercise 2.1 Compose a list of 10 words that contain silent letters.

Many oddly spelled English words and those that contain silent letters are often related to the origin of a word and usually reflect a spelling common to the language from which it was borrowed. For example, words such as “pneumonia,” “rhombus,” and “cyst” are derived from the Greek language, helping explain their particular spellings. In addition, we borrow entire words from other languages, keeping their spelling intact. This only adds to our spelling irregularities. Examples of some words borrowed from other languages include: quiche (French) kielbasa (Polish) sauerkraut (German) tequila (Spanish)

karaoke (Japanese) chutzpah (Yiddish) taekwondo (Korean) lasagna (Italian)

Chapter Two 11

Examine the word “through.” The word has seven graphemes but only three speech sounds: “th,” “r,” and “oo.” Now examine the word “phlegm.” How many sounds (not letters) do you think are in this word? If you answered four, you are correct—“f,” “l,” “e,” and “m.” Letters only tell us about spelling; they give no clues as to the number of sounds in a word or the word’s actual pronunciation. It is imprecise to talk about a sound that may be associated with a particular alphabet letter (or letters) because the letters may not be an accurate reflection of the sound they represent. For instance, the grapheme “s” represents a different sound in the word “size” than it does in the word “vision.” What do you think is the sound associated with the letter “g” in the word “phlegm”?

Exercise 2.2 Say each of the following words out loud to determine the number of sounds that comprise each one. Write your answer in the blank. Examples: 3

reed

frog

wince

lazy

smooth

cough

spilled

driven

comb

why

raisin

thrill

judge

away

Because the Roman alphabet contains fewer letters than the number of speech sounds in English, one alphabet letter often represents more than one speech sound. For instance, the grapheme “c,” in the words “cent” and “car,” represents two different sounds. Likewise, the grapheme “o” represents six different sounds in the words “cod,” “bone,” “women,” “bough,” “through,” and “above.” Sometimes the same sequence of letters represents different sounds in English. For instance, the letter sequence “ough” represents four different vowel sounds in the words “through,” “bough,” “cough,” and “rough.” (Note that the spelling “ough” also represents the inclusion of the consonant /f/ in the last two words.) These examples provide further evidence of why it is inappropriate to discuss sounds in association with letters. After reading the previous information, how would you answer the following question: What is the sound of the letter “o” or the letters “ough”?

Exercise 2.3 For each grapheme given, provide two words that demonstrate the varied use of that grapheme. Examples: c

car

city

vision

sit

Continues

12 Phonetic Transcription ofEnglish

Exercise 2.3 (Cont.) i

Another way sound and spelling differ is that the same sound can be represented by more than one letter or sequence of letters. Allographs are different letter sequences or patterns that represent the same sound. The following groups of words contain allographs of a particular sound, represented by the underlined letters. You will note that the sound associated with some allographs is predictable, while the sound associated with others is not. Keep in mind that for each example, although the spelling is different, the sounds they represent are the same. loop, through, threw, fruit, canoe mail, convey, hate, steak trite, try, tried, aisle, height for, laugh, photo, muffin shoe, Sean, caution, precious, tissue scene, miss, same, censure jam, exaggerate, gem, lodge, soldier Note in some of the examples that pairs of letters often represent one sound because there are simply not enough single alphabet letters to represent all of the sounds of English. These pairs of letters are called digraphs. Digraphs may be the same two letters (as in “hoot,” “heed,” or “tissue”) or two completely different letters (as in “shoe,” “steak,” or “tried”).

Exercise 2.4 Examine the underlined sounds (letter combinations) in the words in each row. Place an “X” in front of the one word that does not share an allograph with the others. Example:

raid

cake

hey

back

shoe

measure

ocean

sufficient

chord

liquor

biscuit

rag

moon

through

though

suit

wood

done

flood

rub

ice

was

press

scissors

Chapter Two 13

Morphemes, Phonemes, andAllophones Learning Objective 2.2 Describe the importance of morphemes, phonemes, and allophones in phonetics.

In this section, we will focus our attention on morphemes, phonemes, and allophones. These three units of spoken language help form the foundation for the study of phonetics. You will soon understand how a thorough understanding of these three basic elements of language is essential in your mastery of phonetics and phonetic transcription.

Morphemes: Units ofMeaning

One key to understanding the irregularity of English spelling can be found if we study the spelling patterns among words that share similar meaningful linguistic units, or morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of language capable of carrying meaning. For instance, the word “book” is a morpheme. The word “book” carries meaning because it connotes an item that is composed of pages with print, binding, two covers, and so on. The word “chair” is also a morpheme; it conveys meaning. Now consider the word “books.” It contains two morphemes, the morpheme “book” and the morpheme represented by the word ending -s. The -s ending indicates the plural form of the word, that is, more than one book. Since -s carries meaning, it is a morpheme. Other examples of morphemes include regular verb endings (such as -ed and -ing as in the words “walked” and “calling”), prefixes (such as pre- and re- as in “prepaid” and “reread”), and suffixes (such as -tion in “constitution” and -ive as in “talkative”). Notice that syllables and morphemes are not the same thing. It is possible for a one-syllable word, such as “books” or “walked,” to have more than one morpheme. Conversely, it is possible for words with more than one syllable to be comprised of only one morpheme (e.g.,“celery” and “asparagus”). Take a moment to examine the following three pairs of words. Notice that each word pair shares the same morpheme. Say each pair aloud. What do you notice? music musician phlegm phlegmatic press pressure Hopefully you noted that although each pair shares the same morpheme, the pronunciation of the morphemes in each pair is different. English morphemes tend to be spelled the same even though the words that share them are pronounced in a different manner. English spelling may not appear to be so odd if one considers the spelling of the morphemes that form the roots of many irregularly spelled English words (MacKay, 1987). Morphemes that can stand alone and still carry meaning, such as “book,” “phlegm,” “music,” or “press,” are called free morphemes. Morphemes (bold) such as pre(date), re(tread), (book)s, (music)ian, and (press)ure are called bound morphemes because they are bound to other words and carry no meaning when they stand alone. Having a good understanding of morphemes is important in the study of phonetics. However, when performing phonetic transcription, we will not focus on morphemic analysis of words. Instead, our attention will be on individual speech sounds, or phonemes.

Exercise 2.5 A. For each item below, think of another word that shares the same morpheme. Example: create

creation

1. deduce

3. potent

2. protect

4. scrutiny

Continues

14 Phonetic Transcription ofEnglish

Exercise 2.5 (Cont.) 5. labor

_____________________

8. decent

_____________________

6. great

_____________________

9. late

_____________________

7. honest

_____________________

10. magnet

_____________________

B. Indicate the number of morphemes in each of the following words. Examples: 1

cucumber

reading

reworked

caution

running

lived

relistened

warmly

finger

talker

kangaroo

prorated

clarinetist

sharply

swarming

Phonemes and the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

A phoneme is an individual speech sound that is capable of differentiating morphemes and therefore is capable of distinguishing meaning. Note that a morpheme (such as “look”) is composed of a string of individual phonemes. A change in a single phoneme always will change the identity and meaning of the morpheme. For example, by changing the initial phoneme from /l/ to /b/, the morpheme “look” becomes “book.” Using our definition of phoneme, we can say that the phoneme /l/ (or the phoneme /b/) differentiates the two morphemes “look” and “book.” By changing the final phoneme from /t/ to /b/, the morpheme “cat” is distinguished from the morpheme “cab.” In these two examples, a change of only one phoneme results in the creation of two morphemes (words, in this case) with completely different meanings. Words that vary by only one phoneme (in the same word position) are called minimal pairs or minimal contrasts. “Look”/“book” and “cat”/“cab” are examples of minimal pairs because they vary by only one phoneme. Other examples of minimal pairs include “hear”/“beer,” “through”/“brew,” “clip”/“click,” and “brine”/“bright.” Notice that these words differ by only one speech sound even though spelling shows more than one letter change. Also notice that two words must have the same number of phonemes to be considered minimal pairs. For example, even though “cat” and “cats” differ by only one sound, they are not considered minimal pairs because they do not have the same number of phonemes.

Exercise 2.6 A. For each word below, create a minimal pair by writing a word in the blank. The first five minimal pairs should reflect a change in the initial phoneme; the second five should involve a change in the final phoneme. Examples: initial phoneme change

seal

meal

final phoneme change

card

cart Continues

Chapter Two 15

Exercise 2.6 (Cont.) initial phoneme change

final phoneme change

1. tame

6. heart

2. late

7. tone

3. call

8. web

4. could

9. cheap

5. boil

10. rub

B. Place an “X” next to the word pairs that are examples of minimal pairs. 1. kale, mail

6. find, fanned

2. blog, blot

7. daughter, slaughter

3. smart, smarts

8. twitch, switch

4. rinse, sins

9. rings, brings

5. bird, burned

10. limes, rhymes

Because it is difficult to use the Roman alphabet to represent speech sounds, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) has been adopted by linguists, phoneticians, and speech and hearing professionals for the purpose of speech transcription. The IPA is a phonetic alphabet; each symbol of the alphabet represents one specific speech sound. The IPA was created for adoption by languages worldwide by the International Phonetic Association, formed in 1886. The IPA symbols are consistent from language to language. For example, the English word “sit” and the German word “mit” (meaning “with”) both have the same vowel. Therefore, we would use the same vowel symbol to transcribe these words (/sɪt/ and /mɪt/, respectively). A list of all the common IPA symbols used in English is located in Table2.1. The complete IPA chart (revised to 2020) is located in Figure2.1. Take some time to examine the chart. Several sections need to be highlighted. The large area at the top, labeled CONSONANTS (PULMONIC), shows all the consonants of the world’s languages that are produced with an airstream from the lungs. All English consonants are pulmonic consonants. Many of these symbols may appear foreign to you. Compare the IPA pulmonic consonants with the English consonant symbols given in Table2.1. You will observe that many of the symbols in the IPA chart represent sounds not present in spoken English. Also, call your attention to the section of NON-PULMONIC CONSONANTS that are produced without the need for airflow from the lungs. Non-pulmonic consonants include the clicks often heard in some African languages. An especially important part of the IPA chart is labeled VOWELS. You will note that the vowels are placed in various locations around a four-sided figure. This quadrilateral is a schematic drawing of a speaker’s mouth, or oral cavity. The placement of the vowel symbols within the quadrilateral is roughly based on where the tongue is located during production of the various vowels. As with the consonants, many of the IPA vowel symbols are representative of speech sounds not found in English.

16 Phonetic Transcription ofEnglish

TABLE 2.1 The IPA Symbols for American EnglishPhonemes.

Vowels

Diphthongs

Consonants

Symbol

Key Word

Symbol

Key Word

/i/

key

/o/

okay

/ɪ/

win

/ɔ/

law

/e/

rebate

/ɑ/

cod

/ɛ/

red

/ə/

about

/æ/

had

/ʌ/

bud

/u/

moon

/ə˞ /

butter

/ʊ/

wood

/ɜ˞ /

bird

/aʊ/

how

/eɪ/

bake

/aɪ/

tie

/oʊ/

rose

/ɔɪ/

boy

/p/

pork

/ð/

them

/b/

bug

/s/

say

/t/

/z/

zoo

/d/

dog

/ʃ/

ship

/k/

king

/ʒ/

beige

/ɡ/

/h/

hen

/m/

mad

/tʃ/

chew

/n/

name

/dʒ/

join

/ŋ/

ring

/w/

wise

/f/

for

/j/

yet

/v/

vote

/ɹ/

row

/θ/

think

/l/

let

The area marked DIACRITICS presents another array of specialized symbols that are used in conjunction with the IPA consonant and vowel symbols. Diacritics are employed to indicate an alternate way of producing a certain sound.The use of diacritical markings is explained in more detail in Chapter8. The last section of the IPA chart, most important for our purposes, is labeled SUPRASEGMENTALS. The suprasegmental symbols are used to indicate the stress, intonation pattern, and tempo of any particular utterance in a language. As you look over the entire chart, you will notice that many of the unfamiliar symbols appear similar to the letters of the Roman alphabet. This was one of the guiding principles of the International Phonetic Association when creating the symbols for the IPA. That is, all symbols of the IPA were designed to blend in with the letters of the Roman alphabet (Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, 1999). Initially, the IPA chart will be confusing to you. As you progress through this text, the chart will become less confusing and more meaningful in your study of phonetics. Some good resources that will help you become better acquainted with the sounds and symbols of the IPA can be found at the end of the chapter.

Chapter Two 17

Figure 2.1 The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to2020). Based on IPA Chart, http://www. internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/ipa-chart, available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Unported License. Copyright © 2020 International Phonetic Association.

18 Phonetic Transcription ofEnglish

Exercise 2.7 Examine the vowel symbols in Table2.1. Which vowel symbol would be used to transcribe each vowel in the following words? Example: beast

1. lend

4. should

2. man

5. rude

3. flick

6. week

Exercise 2.8 Examine the consonant symbols in Table 2.1. Which consonant symbol would be used to transcribe the last consonant sound in each of the following words? Hint: Listen to the last sound in each word as you say it aloud. Remember: Forget about spelling! Examples: dog

rich

tʃ

1. ram

4. sung

2. laugh

5. bath

3. wish

6. leave

Exercise 2.9 Which vowel or consonant IPA symbol would you use when transcribing the sounds represented by the digraphs (underlined) in the following words? Write your answer in the blank. (Consult Figure2.1 and Table2.1 to assist in completing this exercise.) 1. shoe

7. mocked

2. them

8. wing

3. chew

9. exaggerate

4. guilt

10. biscuit

5. wood

11. vision

6. rough

12. labor

Complete Assignment 2-1.

Chapter Two 19

Allophones: Members of a PhonemeFamily

The term phoneme has been discussed as a speech sound that can distinguish one morpheme from another. However, there is another way to define phoneme. We could also say that a phoneme is a family of sounds. Speech sounds are not always produced the same way in every word. For example, the /l/ in the word “lip” is different from the /l/ in the word “bottle.” You might say to yourself: How are they different? They are both /l/s. You need to consider how these /l/ sounds are produced in the mouth when saying these two words. In “lip,” the /l/ is produced with the tongue toward the front of the mouth, and in the word “bottle,” the /l/ is produced in the back of the mouth. Say them to yourself, and you will discover that this is indeed true. These are but twoexamples of the /l/ family of sounds. Members of a phoneme family are actually variant pronunciations of a particular phoneme. These variant pronunciations are called allophones. The front (or light) /l/ and the back (or dark) /l/ are allophones or variant productions of the phoneme /l/. These two variants both can be found in the word “little” (the first /l/ is light; the second is dark). Try saying “little” by using the dark /l/ at the beginning of the word. Although the word may sound funny to you, it is still recognizable as the word “little.” For this reason, the variants of /l/ are not individual phonemes. Saying the word “little” with either the front or back /l/ at the beginning of the word does not change the identity or meaning of the original word. That is, it does not result in the creation of a minimal pair.

Exercise 2.10 Try saying the /p/ sound in the word “keep” two different ways: 1. exploding (or releasing) the /p/ 2. not exploding the /p/ (These are two allophones of the /p/ phoneme.)

Certain allophones must be produced a particular way due to the constraints of the other sounds in a word, that is, the phonetic context. For instance, the /k/ sound in the word “kid” is produced close to the front of the mouth because the vowel that follows it is a “front vowel,” that is, a vowel produced toward the front of the mouth. On the other hand, the /k/ sound in “could” is produced farther back in the mouth because the vowel following /k/ is a “back vowel”— produced toward the back of the mouth. Say the two words, paying attention to the position of your lips and tongue as you pronounce them. Hopefully you will observe that there is a difference in the position of your speech articulators. These two allophones of /k/ are not interchangeable due to the phonetic constraints of the vowel in each word. These allophones are said to be in complementary distribution. That is, these two allophones of /k/ are found in distinctly different phonetic environments and are not free to vary in terms of where in the mouth they may be produced. Another example of complementary distribution involves production of /p/ in the words “pit” and “spit.” In English, when /p/ is produced at the beginning of a word, a small puff of air occurs after its release. The puff of air is called aspiration. Say the word “pit” holding your hand in front of your mouth. You should be able to feel the puff of air escaping from your lips following the production of /p/. Whenever the phoneme /p/ follows the phoneme /s/, as in

20 Phonetic Transcription ofEnglish the word “spit,” it will always be unaspirated. Say the word “spit” holding your hand in front of your mouth. You should feel less air than when you said the word “pit.” Hold your hand in front of your mouth alternating the productions of these two words. You should be able to feel the variance in the airstream on your hand. These two allophones of /p/, aspirated and unaspirated, are in complementary distribution. In English, unaspirated phonemes never occur in the initial position of a word. However, unaspirated phonemes do occur at the beginning of words in many other languages, including Vietnamese, Spanish, Mandarin Chinese, and Tagalog. In contrast to the examples just given, some allophones are not linked to phonetic context and therefore can be exchanged for one another; they are free to vary. In Exercise2.10 you were asked to say the word “keep” two different ways, either releasing the /p/ or not; it is up to the speaker to decide. The phonetic environment has no bearing on whether the /p/ will be exploded. In this case, the allophones of /p/ are said to be in free variation. Likewise, the final /t/ in the word “hit” may be released or unreleased, depending on the speaker’s individual production of the word. These two variant productions (released or unreleased) are allophones of /t/ that are in free variation.

Syllables and TheirComponents

Learning Objective 2.3 Define and describe the components of a syllable.

In conversational speech, it is often difficult to determine where one phoneme ends and the next one begins. This is due to the fact that in conversational speech, phonemes are not produced in a serial order, one after the other. Instead, phonemes are produced in an overlaid fashion due to overlapping movements of the speech articulators during speech production. Because there is considerable overlap in phonemes during the production of speech, many phoneticians and linguists suggest that the smallest unit of speech production is not the allophone or phoneme but the syllable. As you know, words are composed of one or more syllables. We all have a general idea of what a syllable is. If you were asked how many syllables are in the word “meatball,” you would have little difficulty determining the correct answer—two. Even though you have a general idea of what a syllable is, in actuality it is quite difficult to answer the seemingly simple question, What is a syllable? The reason for this difficulty is that a syllable may be defined in more than one way. Also, phoneticians and linguists often do not agree on the actual definition of a syllable. We will begin our definition by stating that a syllable is a basic building block of language that may be composed of either one vowel alone or a vowel in combination with one or more consonants. This is a typical dictionary definition. However, for our purposes this definition is not adequate because it is based on vowel and consonant letters, not vowel and consonant phonemes. In most cases, it is easy to identify the number of syllables in a word. For instance, we would agree that the words “control,” “intend,” and “downtown” all have two syllables. Likewise, it is easy to determine that the words “contagious,” “alphabet,” and “tremendous” each have three syllables. However, it is not always so easy to determine the number of syllables in a word. Using our simple dictionary definition, the words “feel” and “pool” would be one-syllable words. That is, they each contain a vowel in combination with one or more consonant letters. Many individuals, however, pronounce these words as two syllables. On the other hand, some people pronounce these words as one syllable depending on their individual speaking style and dialect. The word “pool” is pronounced by many as “pull,” as in “swimming pull.” Likewise, some Southern speakers pronounce the word “feel” as “fill,” as in “I fill fine.” Another example involves the words “prism” and “chasm.” According to the basic definition, these words would be considered one syllable because they

Chapter Two 21

contain only one vowel. However, most speakers would probably consider these words to consist of two syllables. One last example involves the pronunciation of words like “camera” or “chocolate.” These words have three vowels but can be pronounced as either two or three syllables, depending on whether the speaker pronounces the middle vowel (i.e.,“camra” or “choclate”). Both pronunciations are considered appropriate for either word. Obviously a better definition of “syllable” is necessary to help overcome these difficulties. One way to refine our definition might be to more fully describe a syllable’s internal structure, using terms other than consonant and vowel. It is possible to divide English syllables into two components: onset and rhyme. The onset of a syllable consists of all the consonants that precede a vowel, as in the words “split,” “tried,” and “fast” (onset is in bold letters). Note that the onset may consist of either a single consonant or a consonant cluster (two or three contiguous consonants in the same syllable). In syllables with no initial consonant, there is no onset. Examples of words with no onset are “eat,” “I,” and the first syllable in the word “afraid.” Note that the second syllable of “afraid” has an onset consisting of the consonant cluster /fɹ/.

Exercise 2.11 Circle the syllables in the following one-syllable and two-syllable words containing an onset. (For the two-syllable words, circle any syllable with an onset.) ouch

crab

hoe

oats

elm

your

react

cargo

beware

atone

courage

eating

The rhyme of a syllable is divided into two components, the nucleus and the coda. The nucleus is typically a vowel. The nuclei of the words “split,” “tried,” and “fast” are indicated in bold letters. However, several consonants in English may be considered to be the nucleus of a syllable in certain instances. In the words “chasm” and “feel,” the /m/ and /l/ phonemes would be considered to be the nucleus of the second syllable of each word (if “feel” is pronounced as a two-syllable word). In these words, the consonants /m/ and /l/ assume the role of the vowel in the second syllable. When consonants take on the role of vowels, they are called syllabic consonants. The coda includes either single consonants or consonant clusters that follow the nucleus of a syllable, as in the words “split,” “tried,” and “fast.” In some instances the coda may, in fact, have no elements at all, as in the words “me,” “shoe,” “oh,” and “pry.” In these examples, remember to forget spelling and focus on the sounds in the words.

Exercise 2.12 Circle the letters that make up the nucleus in the following words. Some of the words have more than one nucleus. shrine

scold

plea

produce

schism

away

elope

selfish

auto

biceps

flight

truce

22 Phonetic Transcription ofEnglish

Exercise 2.13 Circle the word(s) (or syllables) that have a coda. through

spa

rough

bough

row

spray

lawful

funny

create

inverse

candy

replay

To further illustrate the nomenclature associated with syllables, the structure of the one-syllable words “scrub,” “each,” and “three” are detailed in “tree diagrams” (Figure2.2). The onset, rhyme, nucleus, and coda of each word are labeled appropriately. The Greek letter sigma ( σ) is used to indicate a syllable division. Note the null symbol (F), which indicates the absence of the onset and coda in two of the examples. Diagrams of the two-syllable words “behave” and “prism” follow the diagrams of the one-syllable words (refer to Figure2.3). Notice in Figure2.3 that the consonant /m/ in “prism” forms the nucleus of the second syllable. Syllables that end with a vowel phoneme (no coda) are called open syllables. Examples include “the,” “I,” and both syllables of the word “maybe.” Syllables with a coda—that is, those that end with a consonant phoneme—are called closed syllables. Examples of closed syllables are “had,” “keg,” and both syllables of the word “contain.” When determining whether a syllable is open or closed, you need

Figure 2.2 Syllable structure of the one-syllable words “scrub,” “each,” and “three.”

σ rhyme

onset nucleus

coda

scr σ onset

rhyme nucleus

coda

No Onset

σ onset

thr

rhyme nucleus

coda

No Coda

Chapter Two 23

Figure 2.3 Syllable structure of the two-syllable words “behave” and“prism.” word σ

onset

rhyme

onset

nucleus

coda

rhyme nucleus

coda

word σ

nucleus pr

onset

rhyme

onset

coda ɸ

rhyme nucleus

coda

to pay attention to the phonemic specification of the syllable, not its spelling. More examples of open and closed syllables are given below. Words with Open Syllables One-Syllable he bow may rye through

Two-Syllable allow daily belie zebra hobo

Words with Closed Syllables One-Syllable corn suave wish charge slammed

Two-Syllable captive chalice dentist English invest

Exercise 2.14 A. Examine the following two-syllable words. Indicate whether the first syllable is open (O) or closed (C) by filling in the blank with the appropriate letter. Examples:

around

blistered

pliant

comply

coerced

minutes

decree

encase

flatly

preface

B. Examine the same two-syllable words as those in the previous exercise. Indicate whether the second syllable is open (O) or closed (C) by filling in the blank with the appropriate letter. Examples:

around

blistered

pliant

comply

coerced

minutes

decree

encase

flatly

preface

24 Phonetic Transcription ofEnglish

Consonant and Vowel Patterns in EnglishSyllables

In English, there are a few single-syllable words that only are comprised of a vowel or diphthong nucleus with no onset or coda (e.g.,“I,” “oh,” and “a”). A diphthong is an individual phoneme containing two vowels. The words “I,” “toy,” and “cow” all have diphthongs as their nucleus. (More will be said of diphthongs in Chapter4.) There are no English words that are solely comprised of a single consonant. This is because all English syllables must contain a vowel or diphthong nucleus; the number of consonants in any individual syllable is variable. English syllables are typically complex, containing a combination of vowels and consonants. The simplest syllables in English are usually made up of either one consonant followed by a vowel (abbreviated as CV) or one vowel followed by a consonant (VC). Virtually all of the world’s languages have CV syllables. Also, because of their simplicity, one-syllable CV words are the first words that children typically produce. Some examples of CV syllables include the words “fee,” “so,” “the,” and “chew.” Some examples of VC syllables include the words “up,” “on,” “it,” and “oak.” The largest one-syllable word in English, “strengths” (transcribed as /stɹeŋkθs/), is of the form CCCVCCCC. The syllable is comprised of a three-consonant onset /stɹ/, the mandatory vowel nucleus /e/, and a four consonant coda /ŋkθs/. Table2.2 provides examples of other English syllable CV patterns.

TABLE 2.2 Examples of English Syllable CVPatterns. Syllable Pattern

Examples

Syllable Pattern

Examples

to, me

CCVC

crop, dream

CCV

spy, true

CCVCC

stand, prank

CCCV

straw, spry

CCVCCC

pranced, cringed

at, each

CCVCCCC

twelfths

VCC

ask, ox

CCCVC

strap, scream

VCCC

axed, Alps

CCCVCC

strict, splashed

CVC

top, can

CCCVCCC

scrounged, squints

CVCC

picked, hasp

CCCVCCCC

strengths

CVCCC

salts, helped

Exercise 2.15 Provide one English word for each of the given syllable patterns. Do not use the examples given in Table2.2. 1. CV

____________________

5. CCVC

____________________

2. CCV

____________________

6. CVCC

____________________

3. CVC

____________________

7. CCVCC

____________________

4. VCC

____________________

8. CVCCC

____________________

Every language has what is known as a canonical syllable. The canonical syllable for any particular language indicates how many consonants may occur both before and after the vowel nucleus in any one syllable (Maddieson, 2013b). In English, the canonical syllable is of the form (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C) (C)(C), as in the word “strengths.” That is, in English, up to three optional

Chapter Two 25

consonants (indicated by the parentheses) may precede a vowel and up to four optional consonants may follow a vowel in any one syllable (refer to Table2.2). Note that the vowel is not enclosed with parentheses since it is a mandatory element of every syllable. English has a much more extensive syllable inventory than some other languages. In fact, the CV is the canonical syllable in a small number of languages, including Hawaiian. Other languages, including Fijian, have a (C)V canonical syllable where the initial consonant is optional. A large number of languages have a more complex syllable inventory, similar to English. These include Hindi, French, German, Polish, Russian, and Norwegian, as well as several African and Native American languages (Maddieson, 2013b). Languages also differ in how to assign an intervocalic consonant (a consonant in between two vowels) to a particular syllable. For example, some English speakers consider the “l” sound in “balance” to be the coda of the first syllable (“bal”), but others consider it to be the onset of the second syllable (“lance”). In other words, how to syllabify the “l” sound in a word like “balance” is ambiguous: “l” in this context is ambisyllabic. In contrast, French speakers agree that the “l” in “balance” (in English or French) belongs to the second syllable (Cutler etal., 1986). In other words, one’s native phonology determines how sounds are syllabified.

Primary WordStress

Learning Objective 2.4 Identify primary stress in words.

In words with more than one syllable, one syllable is produced with the greatest force or greatest muscular energy. The increased muscular energy causes the syllable to stand apart from the others due to greater emphasis of the syllable. This increased emphasis in the production of one syllable is commonly referred to as word stress or lexical stress. The increase in muscular energy or emphasis results in a syllable that is perceived by listeners as longer in duration, higher in pitch, and, to a lesser extent, louder (i.e.,greater in intensity). The rise in pitch is particularly important in alerting listeners to the stressed syllable in a word (Lehiste, 1970). Phoneticians also refer to word stress, or lexical stress, as word accent (Calvert, 1986; Cruttenden, 2008). Stress is not a trivial matter in learning and understanding spoken language. When we hear a word such as “confuse,” we recognize it not only because of the particular phonemes that comprise it but also because of the inherent stress pattern of the word. Try saying this word by changing the stress to the first syllable, that is, CONfuse. The word now sounds somewhat odd because the string of phonemes does not coincide with the new stress pattern. The unique combination of these individual phonemes and this particular stress pattern does not match any item stored in your mental dictionary. As language is developed, children (not just those learning English) must master not only the phonemes that make up individual words but also their associated stress patterns. However, the stress patterns of different languages vary remarkably. One major reason why foreign speakers of English (or any second language) have difficulty with pronunciation is lack of knowledge of the stress patterns of the new language being learned. Secondlanguage learners often sound “foreign,” that is, have an “accent,” when using the stress pattern of their native language while speaking a second language. Words that have more than one syllable always have one particular syllable that receives primary stress (i.e.,the greatest emphasis). For example, the bisyllabic (two-syllable) word “SISter” has primary stress on the first syllable. The multisyllabic (more than two-syllable) word “courAgeous” has primary stress on the second syllable. Syllables in bisyllabic and multisyllabic words that do not receive primary stress may receive secondary stress or no stress, depending on the level of emphasis given to the individual syllable. As you will see, the specific syllable that receives primary stress in multisyllabic English words is quite variable. However, many languages have a fixed stress pattern for multisyllabic words. For example, a word’s

26 Phonetic Transcription ofEnglish first syllable always receives primary stress in Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian, and Bengali. The penultimate (second-to-last) syllable always receives primary stress in a number of languages, including Polish, Welsh, Hawaiian, Tagalog, and some Native American languages (Goedemans & van der Hulst, 2013). Word (lexical) stress is extremely important in learning the phonetic transcription of English because some of the IPA symbols indicate which syllable in a word receives primary stress. Although it is possible to learn how to mark levels of stress in multisyllabic words (i.e., primary vs. secondary stress), for now we will focus primarily on indicating whether a syllable receives primary stress. Some students will experience little difficulty in identifying the syllable with primary stress in bisyllabic and multisyllabic words. Unfortunately, for many this ability is extremely trying. Part of the reason for this difficulty is that, although we know how to use stress correctly in production of speech, we are not accustomed to thinking about stress patterns in the perception of speech. Although every English word has a default stress pattern, most words that contrast in stress also differ in vowels. For example, REcord and reCORD differ not only in stress but also in the vowels (i.e.,a full vowel becomes a reduced vowel, and vice versa). “Pure” stress pairs that share the same consonants and vowels, such as FOREbear versus forBEAR or TRUSty versus trusTEE, are very rare (Cutler, 1986). As a result, we rarely have to rely only on stress to perceive word distinctions. As communicators, we simply are not used to listening to speech and identifying stressed syllables in words. Researchers have been successful in enumerating the rules that govern the location of primary stress in words (Chomsky & Halle, 1968; Cruttenden, 2008; Jones, 1967). However, the rules do have exceptions, and they are also difficult to remember. During transcription of speech, there is simply not enough time to think about the rules governing stress in words. For purposes of phonetic transcription, what is important is the ability to hear the location of primary stress in words, not the rules that govern how stress is assigned to syllables. Fortunately, the ability to identify (hear) the location of primary stress in words can be developed in time with much listening practice. Examine the following bisyllabic words. Say them aloud. What do you notice about the stress patterns of these words? (Hint: They all have the same stress pattern.) contain inspect

aware reveal

berserk suppose

charade detain

Hopefully, you determined that the second syllable of each of these words receives primary stress. Say the words again, paying careful attention to the increased pitch associated with the second syllable: conTAIN inSPECT

aWARE reVEAL

berSERK supPOSE

chaRADE deTAIN

The IPA symbol used for indicating the primary stress of a word is a raised mark (ˈ) placed at the initiation of the stressed syllable. The words above would be marked in the following manner to indicate second-syllable stress: conˈtain inˈspect

aˈware reˈveal

berˈserk supˈpose

chaˈrade deˈtain

Now examine the following bisyllabic words. Each of these words contain first syllable primary stress: ˈteacher ˈplural

ˈcertain ˈlarynx

ˈcareful ˈprimate

ˈpractice ˈcontact

Chapter Two 27

Exercise 2.16 One word in each row does not have the same stress pattern as the others. Circle the word that does not have the same stress pattern. 1. dandruff

shampoo

bottle

fragrance

2. cologne

soufflé

surreal

careful

3. always

never

okay

maybe

4. Marie

Sarah

April

Lizzie

5. intrude

instruct

invade

injure

Word stress, in addition to its role in pronunciation, also helps differentiate words that are spelled the same but vary in part of speech, or word class (i.e.,whether a word is a noun, verb, adjective, adverb, etc.). For instance, the words “ˈcontract” (noun) and “conˈtract” (verb), although spelled the same, have different stress patterns. The noun form ˈcontract has stress placed on the first syllable, whereas the verb form conˈtract has word stress on the second syllable. Note that the change in the stress pattern not only changes the meaning of the word but also changes its pronunciation. Say these two words aloud. How do the two words differ in pronunciation? You probably noted that as stress changes, vowel pronunciation changes in one or both syllables. Other examples of twosyllable noun/verb pairs differing in word stress include: Noun

Verb

ˈconflict ˈrecord ˈdigest ˈconvert

conˈflict reˈcord diˈgest conˈvert

Noun

ˈpermit ˈsubject ˈrebel ˈconduct

Verb

perˈmit subˈject reˈbel conˈduct

Note that in these word pairs, the noun form always receives first-syllable stress, and the verb form always receives second-syllable stress.

Exercise 2.17 Circle the words that can be spoken as both a noun and a verb by shifting the stress pattern between the first and second syllables.

PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 2.1

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propose

contest

protest

Congress

research

project

consume

compress

reasoned

confines

Because identifying the primary stress in bisyllabic and multisyllabic words is a difficult chore, the following 12 word lists will provide you with some practice in listening for primary stress in words. These word lists (and accompanying exercises) are designed to make you focus on one particular stress pattern at a time. The lists begin with bisyllabic words and progress to multisyllabic words. As you examine each list, say the words aloud, focusing on the particular stress pattern being demonstrated. Listen to each list several times until you are comfortable with the stress pattern being demonstrated. If you experience any difficulty with Exercises2.18, 2.19, and 2.20, review the word lists until you understand your errors.

28 Phonetic Transcription ofEnglish You may find the following tips helpful for identifying stress: 1. Keep in mind that a stressed syllable is typically louder, longer, and higher in pitch. 2. Use a falling intonation to read a word aloud as if you are shouting the word at someone. Avoid the “list” intonation because reading a word as an item in a list tends to raise the pitch at the end of the word, which could interfere with your use of the pitch cue. 3. Try to shift stress to a different syllable of a word by making it louder, longer, and higher in pitch. Compare the different versions to identify the one that sounds most natural. For example, say the word “minimal” by placing stress on the first (MINimal), second (minImal), or third (miniMAL) syllable. You will find the first version (MINimal) sounds the most natural, which indicates that the primary stress is on the first syllable. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 2.2

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PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 2.3

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PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 2.4

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PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 2.5

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PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 2.6

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List 1: Bisyllabic words; first-syllable stress (words beginning with “e”) edict Egypt Ethan

easy ether eagle

eager either eater

Easter even ego

Note: Keep in mind that words beginning with the letter “e” do not always have first-syllable stress. Examine the words in List 2. List 2: Bisyllabic words; second-syllable stress (words beginning with “e”) eclipse elate Elaine

elapse elect emote

efface ellipse enough

effect elude erupt

List 3: Bisyllabic words; first-syllable stress (words beginning with “o”) over Oprah okra

ocean onus open

omen oboe ozone

owner ogre odor

Note: Keep in mind that words beginning with the letter “o” do not always have first-syllable stress. Examine the words in List 4. List 4: Bisyllabic words; second-syllable stress (words beginning with “o”) overt okay

obey oblique

oppress obese

olé oblige

List 5: Bisyllabic words; first-syllable stress (words beginning with “in”) invoice inner income

instant inches index

inbred ingrate infield

insect infant inlay

Note: Keep in mind that words beginning with the letters “in” do not always have first-syllable stress. Examine the words in List 6.

Chapter Two 29

PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 2.7

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PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 2.8

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PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 2.9

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PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 2.10

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PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 2.11

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PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 2.12

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List 6: Bisyllabic words; second-syllable stress (words beginning with “in”) inspire infect infer

instead inflict inscribe

induce indeed intrude

inject inept involve

List 7: Bisyllabic words; second-syllable stress (words beginning with “a”) around away abrupt alas

abuse aware adorn akin

abort arise accost avow

amass alike atone adapt

avoid afloat aloof afraid

abode avenge aghast anoint

Note: There are many words in English (such as those in List 7) that begin with the letter “a.” The vowel phoneme associated with the sound at the beginning of these words is called schwa, represented with the IPA symbol /ə/. This unstressed vowel constitutes its own syllable in all of the words in List 7. List 8: Bisyllabic words; first-syllable stress engine plastic forest siphon

master rowing whisper solo

caring neither quandary hidden

lucky happen listless trophy

staples Dayton tantrum panda

Harold careful nacho Pittsburgh

Note: Most, but not all, two-syllable words in English have first-syllable primary stress. Examine List 9 for two-syllable words with second-syllable primary stress. List 9: Bisyllabic words; second-syllable stress remove arranged perspire manure

control remain beside discrete

serene caffeine react compress (verb)

carafe repute Brazil admire

pertain suppose invoke assist

repulse untrue humane beguile

element critical verbalize caraway

hypnotize Michigan readable terrible

List 10: Three-syllable words; first-syllable stress realize hydrogen premium yesterday

horrible insulin rivalry xylophone

circulate character sacrifice mystify

fidgety mediate tolerant glorious

List 11: Three-syllable words; second-syllable stress Missouri confusion awareness repulsive

insipid diploma preparing reminded

metallic abortion computer semantics

Ohio courageous neurotic charisma

betrayal erosion palatial aroma

inscription contagious morphemic transistor

30 Phonetic Transcription ofEnglish PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 2.13

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PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 2.14

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List 12: Three-syllable words; third-syllable stress interrupt minuet reprehend reimburse

decoy

stipend

timid

contradict masquerade connoisseur nondescript

mirage

thesis

planted

parade

cajole

pastel

undo

derail

circus

devoid

puzzle

reason

virtue

suspend

cassette

regret

falter

restricts

movie

provide

platoon

Maureen

peon

shoulder

merchant

Exercise 2.19 Circle the three-syllable words that have first-syllable stress. pondering

plentiful

surrounded

musical

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disrespect interfere reapply represent

Circle the words that have second-syllable stress.

terrified

PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 2.16

prearrange decompose disinfect disenchant

Exercise 2.18

transcend

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Illinois buccaneer readjust predispose

Note: It is possible to pronounce most of the words in List 12 with stress on the first syllable, depending on your own speaking habit and dialect. In addition, the location of stress in a multisyllabic word may change, depending on the message the speaker wishes to convey.

lucid

PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 2.15

indiscreet intervene obsolete introduce

edited

asterisk

December

hydrangea

skeletal

consequent

pharyngeal

caribou

telephoned

courageous

misery

persona

underling

contended

umbrella

calendar

distinctive

Barbados

perfected

Philistine

ebony

example

lasagna

India

perusal

Exercise 2.20 Circle the three-syllable words that have second-syllable stress. stupendous

corporal

plantation

heroic

daffodil

pliable

answering

clarinet

violin

subscription

Complete Assignment 2-2.

creative

spectacle

murderer

integer

expertise

carefully

elevate

predisposed

decorum

presumption placenta

discover

immoral

clavicle

muscular

magical

bananas

horribly

majestic

Hawaii

Chapter Two 31

Broad Versus Narrow and Systematic Versus ImpressionisticTranscription

Learning Objective 2.5 Describe the differences between broad and narrow transcription and between systematic and impressionistic transcription.

Throughout the text, we will be referring to different forms of phonetic transcription. Therefore, it is important to say a brief word regarding these different forms of transcription now. Transcription of speech, making no attempt at transcribing allophonic variation, is called broad transcription or phonemic transcription. Slash marks (virgules) are typically used with broad transcription (e.g.,“ball”/bɑl/). The final /l/ in “ball” is a dark /l/. However, broad transcription does not make that distinction since the intent of phonemic (broad) transcription is to capture on paper the transcription of phonemes, with no reference to allophonic variation. Narrow transcription or allophonic transcription, on the other hand, relies on diacritics to show modifications in the production of a vowel or consonant phoneme during transcription. Allophonic transcription of the word “ball” with a velarized or dark /l/ would be [bɑɫ]. Notice that brackets, not slash marks, are typically used with narrow transcription. Narrow transcription also allows for differentiation between the released (exploded) /p/ and the unreleased /p/ in production of the word “keep”: [kip] and [kip̚], respectively. It is probably a good idea to think of broad and narrow transcription not so much as being dichotomous but as existing on a continuum; it is possible for a transcription to include a combination of both types of transcription, depending on the level of detail that is warranted. For example, to transcribe the word “British,” the broad transcription /bɹɪtɪʃ/ shows the phonemes of the word regardless of the variant of English that one speaks. On the other hand, a narrow transcription shows the dialectal difference between the American English variant [bɹɪɾɪʃ] and the British English variant [bɹɪthɪʃ]. Even though these symbols may be confusing to you right now, look at the differences in the symbols used when contrasting broad and narrow transcription. In sum, to use broad or narrow transcription depends on one’s purpose. If the purpose is to write down linguistically contrastive sounds (i.e.,phonemes), a broad transcription will suffice. If the purpose is to specify details of articulation, then a narrow transcription will be appropriate. Suppose you are going to transcribe a recording of a speech given by a local politician. Because you are an expert English speaker and because you are very familiar with the sound system of English, you would be able to perform a systematic transcription of the speech. Systematic transcription, then, requires knowledge of the sound system of a language, prior to analysis. Systematic transcription may be either phonemic (broad) or allophonic (narrow), depending on the level of analysis you have chosen to employ. However, there are times when transcription of an unknown sound system may be necessary. Suppose you were asked to analyze the phonological system of someone who spoke a language with which you were not familiar. You would need to listen very carefully and put down on paper every phonemic and allophonic detail associated with that person’s speech production. Every detail would be important because you would be interested in trying to understand the rules that explain how the speech sound system is structured. This type of transcription, where little or nothing is known about a particular speech sound system prior to analysis, is termed an impressionistic transcription, a form of narrow transcription. Impressionistic transcription also may be employed when working with a child who has a severe speech sound disorder affecting the rules associated with typical speech development. Brackets are always used when performing an impressionistic transcription. Systematic and impressionistic transcription also exist on a continuum. As one gains more knowledge of the sound system of a language, continued transcription becomes more systematic and less impressionistic.

32 Phonetic Transcription ofEnglish

Exercise 2.21 Match the descriptions that can be associated with broad, narrow, impressionistic, or systematic transcription. There is more than one correct answer for each item. broad transcription

1. phonemic

impressionistic transcription

3. use of virgules

narrow transcription

systematic transcription

2. allophonic

4. use of brackets

Chapter Summary ■

■

The Roman alphabet contains fewer letters (26) when compared to the number of English speech sounds (approximately 42). For this reason, there are many irregularly spelled English words; one alphabet letter may represent more than one speech sound, and also the same sound may be represented by more than one letter or sequence of letters (allographs). Many oddly spelled English words contain silent letters or may reflect the spelling of a foreign language from which it was borrowed. Morphemes, phonemes, and allophones are important constructs in phonetics. A morpheme is the smallest unit of language capable of carrying meaning, e.g.,“chair” (a free morpheme) and the -s ending in “chairs,” indicating plural (a bound morpheme). A phoneme is a speech sound capable of differentiating morphemes, e.g., the initial speech sounds /f/ and /m/ in the minimal pairs “feet” and “meet.” An allophone is a variant production of a particular phoneme, e.g.,the initial /l/ (light) and final /l/ (dark) in the word “little.” English syllables are composed of an onset and a rhyme. The onset consists of any single consonant or consonant cluster preceding a vowel; some syllables contain no onset. The rhyme is divided into two components, the nucleus and the coda. The nucleus is typically a vowel or a syllabic consonant, and the coda

■

consists of any single consonant or consonant cluster following the nucleus; some syllables contain no coda. In bisyllabic and multisyllabic words, one syllable always receives primary stress. This syllable is produced with the greatest force, resulting in a syllable that is perceived as being longer in duration, louder, and, most importantly, higher in pitch. The location of primary stress in English syllables is quite variable when compared to some other languages. For many, it takes considerable listening practice to be able to identify the syllable that receives primary stress in a word. Broad (phonemic) transcription is used when there is no attempt to record allophonic variation of speech; slash marks (virgules) are used to indicate broad transcription. Narrow transcription is used when recording allophonic variation of speech; brackets are used to indicate narrow transcription. Narrow transcription is employed when performing an impressionistic transcription of speech, i.e., when transcribing an unknown speech sound system or when transcribing the speech of a child or adult with a severe speech sound disorder affecting the rules associated with typical speech sound development. Systematic transcription is employed when the transcriber is familiar with the sound system of a language. Systematic transcription may be either broad or narrow.

Review Exercises A. How many phonemes are there in each of the following words? Circle the words that have the same number of phonemes as letters. 9. fat

1. bread

_____________

5. plot

_____________

6. stroke

10. tomb

_____________

7. fluid

_____________

3. throw

_____________ _____________

8. spew

_____________

12. last

2. coughs 4. news

_____________

11. walked

_____________ _____________ _____________ _____________

Chapter Two 33

B. How many morphemes are there in the following words? 1. clueless

_____________

3. pumpkin

_____________

2. tomato 4. likable

5. cheddar

6. rewrite

_____________

8. edits

_____________

7. winterized

_____________

9. thoughtlessness

_____________

10. coexisting

_____________ _____________ _____________

C. Listed below are three columns of words. Decide if the words in columns 2 or 3 end in the same phoneme as the words in the first column. Circle the correct matches. 1. box

flack

Puss

3. flag

lounge

league

2. buzz 4. cooked 5. throw

6. through 7. tomb 8. fleas

9. laugh

10. path

dogs pant cow

chow limb

wheeze giraffe bathe

fits

nagged beau flew Bob

mice

bough cloth

D. When the sounds in the words below are reversed, they make another word. What is the new word in each case, after reversing the sounds? 1. net 2. 3. 4. 5.

sell pots gnat need

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

main pin ban tack tune

E. For the following set of items, circle the one that begins with a sound different from the other two. 1. church

chef

chop

3. think

this

these

2. see

4. knee

5. phone 6. song

7. gnaw 8. cup

9. gerbil

10. their

cent came

please sure

geese choir goat

thanks

cut

nut

frost

sheep ghost

chore

George thing

34 Phonetic Transcription ofEnglish F. Give a minimal pair for each of the following words by changing the underlined phoneme. 1. spit

6. fan

3. pink

8. had

2. hand 4. sin

5. pail

7. thought

9. took

10. rob

G. Circle the following pairs of words that are minimal pairs. 1. maybe, baby

6. bribe, tribe

3. looks, lacks

8. shout, pout

2. plaid, prod

7. smart, dart

4. mail, mailed

9. window, minnow

5. prance, prince

10. lumpy, bumpy

H. For the underlined syllables, indicate whether they are open (O) or closed (C). 6. awesome

1. marble

3. patron

8. lucky

10. system

2. previous 4. trifle

5. sodium

7. mistake

9. profit

I. Examine the following words. Indicate whether the first syllable has an onset and/or a coda by placing an “X” in the appropriate column. Onset Examples: social

Yes

Coda No

1. mentions

3. camper

picture

2. icon

4. instinct 5. able

6. lotion

7. charming 8. asterisk 9. Japan

10. aloof

Yes

Chapter Two 35

J. Indicate the primary stress for each of the following two-syllable words. Write “1” if the first syllable has primary stress or “2” if the second syllable has primary stress. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 2.17

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

loser unsure anxious disturb Grecian

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

provoke stagnant beside germane gourmet

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

plastic divorce western language defer

K. Indicate the primary stress for each of the following three-syllable items. Write “1”, “2,” or “3” to indicate the syllable with primary stress. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 2.18

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

provincial sorceress indigent commander arabesque

6. hypocrite 7. indisposed 8. uncertain 9. magenta 10. platypus

11. picturesque 12. relegate 13. foundation 14. contagious 15. constable

L. Indicate the primary stress for each of the following four-syllable words. Write “1,” “2,” or “3” to indicate the syllable with primary stress. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 2.19

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

problematic mercenary statistical ecosystem gregarious

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

correlation catamaran continuant allegory carnivorous

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

protozoan contradiction protoplasm Argentina obstructionist

Study Questions 1. What is a phonetic alphabet? 2. What is the difference between a digraph and an allograph? 3. Discuss three ways in which English spelling principles deviate from the ways words are pronounced. 4. Define the following terms: morpheme, phoneme, grapheme. 5. Why are allophones not considered to be phonemes? 6. Contrast the terms complementary distribution and free variation. 7. What is the purpose of the IPA? 8. Why is the term syllable difficult to define? 9. Define the following terms: onset, rhyme, coda, nucleus. 10. What is the difference between an open and a closed syllable? 11. Why are the words “spread” and “bread” not minimal pairs? 12. What is the difference between phonemic (broad), allophonic (narrow), systematic, and impressionistic transcription?

36 Phonetic Transcription ofEnglish

Online Resources Search online for the International Phonetic Association. From the organization’s home page, select “Alphabet” toward the top of the page for information regarding the IPA chart and phonetic fonts. Search online for UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive. Select “How to Use the Archive” and “Language Database” on the left side of the page for information and audio recordings regarding the sounds of the world’s languages. Search online for UCLA Phonetics Lab Data. From the website, select “Index of Languages” and “Index of Sounds” toward the top of the page for recorded samples of the sounds of the world’s languages. Search online for the University of Victoria International Phonetic Alphabet audio illustrations. The link provides an interactive IPA chart with pronunciations of all the IPA symbols. Search online for the World Atlas of Language Structures Online. On the home page of the website, select “Chapters” in the horizontal bar at the top of the page. In the chapter list, select Chapter12, “Syllable Structure.” This chapter by Ian Maddieson provides information relative to syllable structure in many of the world’s languages. Search online for the World Atlas of Language Structures Online. On the home page of the website, select “Chapters” in the horizontal bar at the top of the page. In the chapter list, select Chapter14, “Fixed Stress Locations.” This chapter by Rob Goedemans and Harry van der Hulst provides information relative to the location of word stress in many of the world’s languages.

Chapter Two 37

Assignment 2-1 Name 1. Indicate the number of phonemes in the following words. a. queen b. Christine c. thought d. ripped

e. treats f. rough g. diskette h. extra

2. Indicate the number of morphemes in the following words. a. lasting b. wonders c. ideas d. misplaced

e. paper f. speedy g. monkeys h. devalue

i. window j. Toledo k. received l. sprints

i. currently j. unchanging k. cantaloupe l. reapplied

3. For the following set of items, circle the words that begin with a sound different from the other two. a. train b. Janet c. them d. capture e. fathom f. chasm g. knot h. genre i. chance j. sail

think genie Theo chaos phone king gnu judge chortle candy

Thomas gaunt that chowder push chastity guru gym chord centipede

4. For the following set of items, circle the words that end with a sound different from the other two. a. wreath b. coop c. keys d. catch e. blue f. rapt g. was h. tract i. wax j. below

breathe coup gnats splash flow rad floss trapped laws brow

breath flew wheeze mesh chew caulked causes trailed wicks crow

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Chapter Two 39

Assignment 2-2 Name 1. Give a minimal pair for each of the following words by changing the underlined phonemes. a. bind b. lean c. red d. wish e. look

f. win g. path h. job i. trash j. foam

2. Circle the following pairs of words that are not minimal pairs. a. one, sun b. clasp, grasp c. learn, turn d. slice, nice e. spite, spot

f. respire, perspire g. large, charge h. feud, rude i. thrash, crash j. gerbil, journal

3. For the underlined syllables, indicate whether they are open (O) or closed (C). a. gruesome

___________________________

f. conspire

___________________________

c. predict

___________________________

h. several

___________________________

b. lazy

d. confuse e. success

___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________

g. settee

i. suitable j. thyroid

___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________

4. Indicate (with an “X”) the words that have an onset in the second syllable. a. concern

___________________________

f. preempt

___________________________

c. gigantic

___________________________

h. earring

___________________________

j. coaxial

b. inaugurate d. bulkhead e. cocoa

___________________________

g. request

___________________________

i. barley

___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________

5. Examine the following words. Indicate whether the first syllable has an onset and/or a coda by placing an “X” in the appropriate column. Onset

Coda

Examples: social picture

Yes X X

Yes X

No X

a. sandbag b. deactivate c. auspicious d. enunciate e. sycamore

40 Phonetic Transcription ofEnglish

Assignment 2-2 (cont.) Onset Examples:

Coda

f. toxic

Yes

h. overtly

j. fusion

g. reflective

i. encapsule

6. Indicate the primary stress for each of the following multisyllable words. Write “1,” “2,” or “3” to indicate the syllable with primary stress. a. intestinal b. demarcation c. statuary d. monetary e. superfluous

f. devaluated g. maniacal h. sociology i. coriander j. elasticity

k. unaccompanied l. orthodontist m. trigonometric n. confederation o. begrudgingly

7. For each of the following, indicate whether the underlined letters represent the onset (O), the nucleus (N), or the coda (C). Write O, N, or C in the blank. a. overt

f. handsome

c. spirits

h. grasped

b. revered d. why

e. ledger

g. seance

i . confined j. stoic

8. On a separate piece of paper, draw tree diagrams of the syllable structure for the following words. a. own b. crust c. lonely d. undo

Chapter 3

Anatomy and Physiology of the SpeechMechanism LearningObjectives After reading this chapter, you will be able to: 3.1 Describe the role of the respiratory system in the production of speech. 3.2 Describe the role of the laryngeal system in the production of speech. 3.3 Describe the role of the supralaryngeal system in the production of

speech.

3.4 Discuss the importance of vocal tract resonance during the process

of speech production.

To fully understand the production of English sounds, it is essential to have a basic understanding of the role of the speech articulators and mechanisms. When you hear the term “speech articulators,” what comes to mind? Most likely you think of the tongue, and perhaps the teeth and lips. If you have already taken an introductory course in speech-language pathology and audiology, you may also be familiar with the role of the alveolar ridge and the hard and soft palates. Speech production is, however, quite a complex process involving many other anatomical structures. For instance, the lungs are important in generating the breath stream for speech, and the larynx is important for generating voice. In this chapter, we will explore the function of the various components of the speech mechanism and discuss their role in respiration, phonation, and articulation. To understand these processes we will explore three major biological systems, namely the respiratory, laryngeal, and supralaryngeal systems.

The Respiratory System andRespiration Learning Objective 3.1 Describe the role of the respiratory system in the production of speech.

Generally when we think of respiration, we think of breathing to sustain life. As a matter of fact, that is the primary role of the respiratory system. However, respiration is also vital in the production of speech because speech could not occur without a steady supply of air from the lungs. We tend to think primarily of the lungs when we think of respiration, yet the respiratory system involves not only the lungs but also the trachea, the rib cage, the thorax, the abdomen, the diaphragm, and other major muscle groups. Examine Figure3.1, which displays the airway involved in respiration. The process of speech production begins with the lungs. The left lung has two lobes and is smaller than the right lung, which has three lobes. The left lung is

42 Anatomy and Physiology of the SpeechMechanism

Figure 3.1 The anatomical relationship among the human larynx, trachea, andlungs.

Larynx Trachea

Lungs

smaller to accommodate the position of the heart. When a person begins to speak, a preparatory breath is taken (usually unconsciously) in order to have enough air to create an utterance (i.e.,a word, phrase, or sentence). This preparatory breath uses more air volume than is needed when sleeping or when sitting quietly reading a book or streaming a movie. More air volume is necessary in order to speak. Try speaking without taking a preparatory breath—you will run out of air very quickly. You probably have tried to speak when you are “out of breath”—your speech is choppy and characterized by gasps for air. Therefore, good breath support is essential during speech production. Singers also need good breath support to sustain their notes while performing so that they do not impair their vocal cords. When sitting quietly, the period of time devoted to inhalation and exhalation is fairly equal. That is, inhalation comprises about 40 percent and exhalation comprises about 60percent of one inhalation/exhalation cycle. When breathing for speech, this relationship changes dramatically. During speech production, inhalation only takes up approximately 10percent of the inhalation–exhalation cycle. The other 90percent is devoted to exhalation (Raphael etal., 2011). This is necessary to have enough breath support to sustain the airstream for speech. During inhalation, the thoracic cavity (chest cavity) must expand in order to make room for the expansion of the lungs. This is accomplished in part by lowering the diaphragm. The diaphragm is a large muscle that separates the abdominal cavity from the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm contracts, thereby lowering, during inhalation. As the diaphragm lowers the rib cage expands, enlarging the thoracic cavity and creating extra space for the inflating lungs. These actions are accomplished by several sets of muscles, most notably (but not limited to) the external intercostal muscles, which are located between the ribs. As the muscles of inhalation contract, the sternum, or breast bone, and the rib cage are also raised. What causes the lungs to fill with air during inhalation? As the lungs expand, the air pressure in the lungs becomes less than the air pressure in the environment. This results in what is called a negative pressure, relative to atmospheric pressure, inside the lungs. That is, there is a drop in air pressure. To equalize the air pressure between the lungs and the environment, air rushes into the lungs. During exhalation, the lungs deflate because they are composed of elastic tissue, not unlike letting the air out of a balloon. Simultaneously, the diaphragm begins to relax and rise, returning to its original position. Also, the rib cage becomes smaller as it lowers due to both the relaxation of the inhalation muscles and the contraction primarily of the internal intercostal muscles and the abdominal muscles. The internal intercostal muscles are located between the ribs but are located deep to (beneath) the external intercostals. The end result is the expulsion of the airstream through the trachea, or windpipe. The trachea, which connects the lungs with the larynx, is a tube comprised of cartilaginous rings embedded in muscle tissue (refer to Figure3.1).

Chapter Three

The Laryngeal System andPhonation Learning Objective 3.2 Describe the role of the laryngeal system in the production of speech.

The laryngeal system consists primarily of the larynx, or “voice box.” The larynx is composed mainly of muscle and cartilage. It attaches inferiorly to (below) the trachea, and superiorly (above), by a broad curtain-like ligament to a “floating” bone known as the hyoid bone (refer to Figures3.2 and 3.3). This is the only bone in the human body that does not attach to another bone. The hyoid bone also has muscular attachments to the tongue and the mandible (lower jaw). Figure3.2 displays the major structures of the larynx from the anterior (front) and posterior (rear) viewpoints. Located in the larynx are the vocal folds, or vocal cords. The vocal folds are elastic folds of tissue that are primarily composed of muscle. They attach anteriorly to the thyroid cartilage. The thyroid cartilage is more sharply angled in males than in females, explaining why males have more prominent thyroid cartilages. The vocal folds attach posteriorly to the arytenoid cartilages. Each vocal fold connects to a separate arytenoid cartilage. The arytenoid cartilages attach to the superior portion of the cricoid cartilage, which encircles the larynx. The cricoid looks somewhat like a class ring, with the band facing anteriorly and the ring’s features facing posteriorly. The thyroid cartilage attaches laterally to (at the sides of) the cricoid. When the airstream enters the larynx, it exerts pressure on the vocal folds from below. Actually, the pressure is applied to the glottis, the space between the vocal folds. For this reason, the air pressure is referred to as subglottal pressure. When the subglottal pressure is great enough, the vocal folds are pushed apart, releasing an air burst. The elasticity of the vocal folds helps bring them together, and the action repeats, thus creating the process called vocal fold vibration. The elasticity of the vocal folds explains only part of the picture in bringing the vocal folds back together. Once the vocal folds are pushed apart, air is forced through the glottis. The rapid flow of air through the glottis causes a simultaneous drop in air pressure, resulting in the vocal folds being sucked together. This aerodynamic principle is known as Bernoulli’s principle. You may have observed this phenomenon if you have ever driven too close to a truck on the interstate, and you felt as though your car was being pulled toward the truck. The airflow between the truck and your car has increased, and the increase in the flow of air has caused a drop in air pressure between the two vehicles. Bernoulli’s principle also explains how planes become airborne. Due to wing design, a pressure difference exists between the top and bottom of the wing as the plane picks up speed. As airflow increases across the wing (as the plane gains speed), the air pressure below the wing becomes greater than the pressure above the wing, causing the plane to lift off.

Figure 3.2 Anterior and posterior views of the humanlarynx. Epiglottis Hyoid bone

Thyroid cartilage Arytenoid cartilages Cricoid cartilage Trachea Anterior view

Posterior view

44 Anatomy and Physiology of the SpeechMechanism

Figure 3.3 The vocal tract and related supralaryngealstructures.

Palate

Nasal cavity

Oral cavity Velum

Teeth

Uvula

Lips Alveolar ridge

Pharynx Epiglottis Vocal folds

Mandible Tongue Hyoid bone

Esophagus

The vibration of the vocal folds during the creation of a vocal sound is called phonation. You can feel the vocal folds vibrating if you place your fingertips on your “Adam’s apple” (the notch in the thyroid cartilage in the front of your neck) while sustaining, or prolonging, the sound /z/ (“zzzzzzz”). You should be able to feel the vocal fold vibration. The sound /z/ is called a voiced sound due to vocal fold vibration during its production. Some other examples of voiced sounds include all of the vowels and several of the consonants—for example, /b/, /l/, /m/, /v/, and /ɡ/. Now place your fingers on your larynx while sustaining the sound /s/ (“sssssss”). The production of the sound /s/ does not involve phonation. Because the vocal folds do not vibrate, the sound /s/ is called a voiceless sound. Several English speech sounds are produced without participation of the vocal folds. Voiceless sounds such as /s/ and /f/ are formed by forcing the airstream through a narrow constriction formed by the speech articulators in the oral cavity, without participation of the vocal folds.

Exercise 3.1 Think of at least two other sounds that are voiced and two others that are voiceless. voiced ______________________________ voiceless ______________________________

During quiet breathing (when not speaking), the vocal folds remain apart— that is, in a state of abduction—to allow air to flow from the lungs through the glottis to the oral and nasal cavities. The vocal folds also remain apart during the production of voiceless sounds. However, when producing voiced sounds, the vocal folds are in a state of adduction—they are brought together. The vocal folds then alternate during phonation between periods of abduction and adduction.

Chapter Three 45

During phonation, the vocal folds open and close at the rate of approximately 120 to 125times per second in the male larynx and approximately 220 to 225times per second in the female larynx (Ferrand, 2018; Raphael etal., 2011). This basic rate of vibration of the vocal folds is called the fundamental frequency of the voice. The fundamental frequency is responsible for the inherent voice pitch of an individual. The pitch of the male voice is usually perceived to be lower than the pitch of the female voice due to the lower fundamental frequency. The pitch of the voice is largely dependent on the size (mass) of the individual larynx. Because the vocal fold tissue in the male larynx has greater mass than that of the female larynx, the male vocal folds vibrate more slowly. Hence, the male voice is perceived as being lower in pitch. Because children have smaller larynges than adults, their vocal pitch is the highest of all. Although we have used adult males, adult females, and children as convenient groups to illustrate the concept of fundamental frequency, the rate of vocal fold vibration varies across individuals, just like the specific height or weight of an individual is not always captured by group averages. Importantly, fundamental frequency is also shaped by nonanatomical factors such as sociocultural expectations (van Bezooijen, 1995) and emotions (Juslin & Scherer, 2005). The voice of transgender speakers illustrates how anatomical, physiological, and sociocultural factors contribute to fundamental frequency and other speech characteristics (Günzburger, 1995; see also Setter, 2019, Chapter6, for a summary of transgender speech). The fundamental frequency of the voice is not constant; voice pitch changes continually over time during speech production. When a word is given stress for emphasis (i.e.,the blue car), the fundamental frequency rises. When someone asks a question, his or her voice pitch also rises, “doesn’t it?” Singers change the fundamental frequency of their voices to sing a scale. Individuals who speak in a monotone (“one tone”) rarely change the pitch of their voice. If you have ever had a professor who spoke in a monotone, you know how monotonous it was for the class. The pitch of the voice also conveys information regarding our moods, that is, whether we are happy, sad, excited, bored, or angry. In addition to phonation, the larynx serves other important purposes. During a meal, the epiglottis, another cartilage of the larynx, diverts food away from the trachea and toward the esophagus to keep food from “going down the wrong pipe” (refer to Figure3.2). The larynx is also important in maintaining air pressure in the thoracic cavity during strenuous activities such as giving birth, lifting a heavy object, and defecation. During these activities, air is held in the lungs to provide extra muscular strength derived from the thorax. The vocal folds are held tightly together along their margins in order to stop the escape of air from the lungs. If you lift weights, you know the importance of good breath control to help you with your workout.

The Supralaryngeal System and Articulation

Learning Objective 3.3 Describe the role of the supralaryngeal system in the production of speech.

The supralaryngeal system refers to anatomical structures above the larynx. (The prefix supra means “above.”) These structures include the pharynx, or throat, the oral cavity, the nasal cavity, and the articulators (refer to Figure3.3). Collectively, these structures comprise what is known as the vocal tract. The length of the vocal tract from larynx to lips is about 17 centimeters (cm), or almost 7 inches in the average adult male, and about 14 or 15 cm in the average adult female (Kent, 1997). The pharynx directs airflow from the larynx to the oral and nasal cavities. It connects to the esophagus, which lies posteriorly to the larynx. The pharynx can be divided into three major sections. In ascending order from the larynx, they are (1) the laryngopharynx, the portion of the pharynx adjoining the larynx; (2) the oropharynx, adjacent to the posterior portion of the oral cavity; and (3) the nasopharynx, adjacent to the posterior portion of the nasal cavity.

46 Anatomy and Physiology of the SpeechMechanism The nasal cavity begins at the nostrils, or nares, and continues to the nasopharynx posteriorly. Directly inferior to the nasal cavity (separated by the palate) is the oral cavity. The oral cavity, or mouth, begins at the lips and continues posteriorly to the oropharynx. The oral and nasal cavities join at the pharynx (refer to Figure3.3). During phonation (vocal fold vibration), air bursts or pulses escape from the glottis when subglottal pressure becomes sufficient to push the folds apart. These pulses are modulated by the opening and closing of the vocal folds. The air bursts collide with a column of air residing in the vocal tract. This collision sends acoustic vibrations at the speed of sound through the vocal tract to the lips (Daniloff etal., 1980). During production of voiceless sounds, the vocal folds do not modulate the airstream because they are abducted. Instead, acoustic vibrations are created when air that is streaming from the lungs is impeded by a constriction formed by the speech articulators in the oral cavity. As the flow of air is forced through the constriction, a turbulent airstream is generated. This turbulence generates acoustic vibrations that then travel toward the lips along with the airstream. As the airstream from the lungs and the accompanying acoustic vibrations are directed to the oral and nasal cavities, the vibrations are modified by the speech articulators to produce the individual sounds of a language. This process is called articulation, which means “to join together.” Articulation of speech, therefore, involves the joining together of the speech articulators for the production of sounds.

TheArticulators

The major articulators of the vocal tract are located in the oral cavity. It is these structures that are directly responsible for the production of speech sounds. A detailed description of these articulators and their role in the production of speech follows. While reading the descriptions of the articulators in the next few paragraphs, you may find it helpful to refer to Figures3.3 and 3.4. TheLips The purpose of the lips is to open and close in the production of several English speech sounds. The upper lip is supported by the maxilla, or upper jaw, and the lower lip is supported by the mandible. In production of English sounds, the lower

Figure 3.4 The landmarks of the tongue in relation to the other structures in the vocaltract.

Nasal cavity

Alveolar ridge Tip Blade Front

Velum Palate Back Root Pharynx

Chapter Three 47

lip is more mobile because the mandible is quite active in speech production. The sounds associated with the lips are called labial sounds. The labial sounds in English include /p, b, m, w, f, and v/. Because /p, b, m, and w/ are produced with both lips, they are called bilabial sounds. Notice that the formation of the sound /w/ is slightly different from /p, b, and m/, the other three bilabial sounds.

Exercise 3.2 Say the words “witch” and “bear” and pay attention to your lips in the formation of /w/ and /b/. What is the difference in the way the lips come together in the formation of these sounds?

The lips often become rounded during production of certain sounds including /w/ and several of the vowels. In fact, all of the vowels in English can be classified in relation to whether the lips are rounded or not. The lips become rounded during production of the vowels in the words “loot,” “could,” “hurt,” and “toad,” whereas the lips are unrounded during production of the vowels in the words “then,” “can,” and “eat.”More will be said of lip rounding in the next chapter.

Exercise 3.3 Say the following words aloud, paying particular attention to whether your lips become rounded or not. Place an “X” next to the words that involve lip rounding. _______ choose

_______ way

_______ car

_______ lamb

_______ road

_______ look

_______ this

_______ heard

_______ mess

TheTeeth The role of the teeth in the production of speech is more important than one might imagine. The top front teeth, the upper central incisors, and the lower lip are used in combination to produce the sounds /f/ and /v/ as in the words “fat” and “vat.” Sounds that involve the articulation of the lower lip and the teeth are called labiodental (lips and teeth). The upper and lower central incisors (with the assistance of the tongue) are important in production of the initial sounds in the words “think” and “that.” Sounds that are produced by the tongue and the teeth are called dental or interdental. In addition to being directly involved in the production of several sounds, the teeth (most notably the molars) also help guide the tongue in the production of other speech sounds, such as the initial sounds in “top,” “sit,” “ship,” and “zebra.”

Exercise 3.4 The sounds that begin the words “think” and “that” both have a “th” sound, yet they are considered to be two separate phonemes. What is the difference in their production?

48 Anatomy and Physiology of the SpeechMechanism The AlveolarRidge The alveolar ridge (or gum ridge of the maxilla) is the bony ridge containing the sockets of the teeth. It is located directly posterior to the upper central incisors. Say the word “team.” The tip of your tongue touches the anterior alveolar ridge as you produce the initial /t/ sound. Other examples of alveolar sounds include /d, l, n, s, and z/. Note that although the tongue does not directly contact the alveolar ridge during production of the sounds /s and z/ (as in the words “sip” and “zip”), they are still considered alveolar because of the tongue’s close proximity to the alveolar ridge during their production. ThePalate The hard palate (or simply, palate) is the bony structure located just posterior to the alveolar ridge. You can feel the palate by sliding the tip of your tongue from the alveolar ridge toward the back of the mouth. The palate, often referred to as the roof of the mouth, separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity. Individuals born with a cleft palate may have an incomplete closure of the hard (or soft) palate that allows air to escape from the oral cavity directly into the nasal cavity. Sounds produced in conjunction with the palate (and tongue) are called palatal. The initial consonant in the word “yes” is palatal. TheVelum The velum, another name for the soft palate, is a muscular structure located directly posterior to the hard palate. (Some of you may be able to touch the soft palate with your tongue tip.) Velar sounds are those produced by articulation of the soft palate with the back of the tongue. Examples include the initial sounds in the words “kite” and “goat” and the “ng” in the word “sing.” The uvula is the rounded, tablike, fleshy structure located at the posterior tip of the velum. Although the uvula is not used in production of speech sounds in English, there are uvular sounds in other languages, such as French and Arabic. Uvular sounds are produced by articulation of the uvula and the back of the tongue. Because the velum is muscular, it is capable of movement. The velum acts as a switching mechanism that directs the flow of air coming from the lungs and larynx. When the velum is raised, it contacts the back wall of the pharynx, closing off the nasopharynx from the oropharynx. This process is called velopharyngeal closure. Closure of the velopharyngeal port prevents air from entering the nasal cavity. On the other hand, when the velum is lowered, air flows into both the oral and nasal cavities. Sounds produced with a raised (closed) velum are called oral sounds; the airstream is directed solely into the oral cavity. Sounds produced with the velum lowered are called nasal sounds because the breath stream also flows into the nasal cavity during their production. In English, there are only three nasal sounds: /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/. The symbol /ŋ/ represents “ng” as in the words “sing” and “hunger.” All of the other sounds in English are oral. TheGlottis The glottis is the place of production for the English sound /h/ as in “heart.” This sound is generally considered a glottal sound because it is produced when the airstream from the lungs is forced through the opening between the vocal folds. Because the vocal folds do not vibrate during the production of /h/, it is considered to be voiceless. TheTongue The tongue is the major articulator in the production of speech. It is composed of muscle and is a highly active and mobile structure. The tongue is supported by the mandible and the hyoid bone through muscular attachments. The tongue also has muscular attachments to several other structures, including the epiglottis, the palate, and the pharynx. Sounds produced with the tongue are called lingual sounds. The tongue is the primary articulator for all of the English vowels. In addition, the tongue articulates with the lips, teeth, alveolar ridge, palate, and velum in production of the consonants. The root of the tongue arises from the anterior wall of the pharynx

Chapter Three 49

and is attached to the mandible (refer to Figure3.4). As a result, tongue movement is very much related to movements of the lower jaw. In addition to the root, the tongue has several other geographical landmarks (refer to Figure 3.4). These landmarks include the apex (tip) of the tongue and the blade, which lies immediately posterior to the tip. The body of the tongue is found just posterior to the blade. The body is comprised of two portions, the front and the back. The front of the tongue generally lies inferior to the hard palate, and the back lies inferior to the velum. The entire tongue body is sometimes referred to as the tongue dorsum. (The term dorsum is also used to refer specifically to just the back of the tongue.) The landmarks are useful in describing the portion of the tongue involved in production of the various English sounds. For instance, /t/ is produced by placing the apex or blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge, and /ɡ/ is produced during articulation of the back of the tongue and the soft palate.

Exercise 3.5 Provide the name of the articulator referenced by each of the following adjectives. 1. velar _______________________

5. palatal _______________________

2. alveolar _______________________

6. glottal _______________________

3. lingual _______________________

7. dental _______________________

4. labial _______________________

The Vocal Tract andResonance

Learning Objective 3.4 Discuss the importance of vocal tract resonance during the process of speech production.

Every sound in a language has a unique quality associated with it due to a unique vocal tract shape and accompanying vibratory pattern, or resonance. Resonance deals with the vibratory properties of any vibrating body (including the vocal tract, a guitar, a pane of glass, or a tuning fork). All objects have natural frequencies of vibration, or resonances. Consider blowing across the top of a bottle. When you blow across the opening, a particular tone is produced due to the inherent vibratory properties of the air mass in the bottle. Imagine adding some water to the bottle. Now what happens when you blow across the top? The tone that is produced will sound higher in pitch. This is because the resonance of the bottle changed due to a lesser air mass residing in the bottle once water was added. During the process of speech sound production, acoustic vibrations from the larynx (or from a constriction of the articulators) are modified as they flow through the vocal tract on their way to the lips. The larynx (or constrictions from the articulators) provides the source of sound for speech, just as the puff of air from your lips supplies the source of sound when blowing across the top of a bottle. The sound source is then shaped, or filtered, as it travels through the vocal tract. During the process of articulation, the natural frequencies of vibration (or resonances) of the vocal tract continually change as the air mass in the vocal tract becomes modified due to the ever-changing shape of the tongue, pharynx, lips, and jaw (similar to changing the water level in the bottle). The resulting sound, then, is a combination of the sound source and the modified (filtered) acoustic vibrations. Once filtered, the speech wave passes from the speaker’s lips to the listener, who will be able to tell all the sounds apart since they each will have their own unique resonance pattern, making each sound audibly distinct. This modification of the sound source by changes in vocal tract resonances is known as the source-filter theory of speech production. Now, consider how the resonance of the vocal tract differs between an oral and a nasal sound. During production of an oral sound, only the oral and pharyngeal cavities

50 Anatomy and Physiology of the SpeechMechanism resonate. During production of a nasal sound, the oral cavity is closed, the velum is lowered, and the acoustic vibrations entering the nasal cavity undergo resonance there as well. The addition of the nasal cavity in production of nasal sounds dramatically alters the resonance of the vocal tract. Hence, the sound quality varies markedly when comparing oral and nasal sounds. Quality is the perceptual character of a sound based on its acoustic resonance patterns. Timbre is a synonym for sound quality. The size, shape, and composition of any vibrating body determine its unique sound quality. Middle “C” played on a piano has a different timbre than middle “C” played on a clarinet, even though both instruments produce the same note on the musical scale. The contrasting timbre allows you to recognize when the same note is played on two different instruments. Similarly, the vocal tract has a recognizable quality due to its own characteristic resonance, and sounds nothing like the sounds produced from a pop bottle or a piano.

ChapterSummary ■

■

system. The pharynx directs airflow from the lungs to the oral and nasal cavities during speech sound production. The velum lowers in production of the nasal sounds and raises during production of the oral sounds. The major articulators include the lips (labial sounds), the teeth (dental sounds), the alveolar ridge (alveolar sounds), the palate (palatal sounds), the velum or soft palate (velar sounds), and the glottis (glottal sounds). The tongue (lingual sounds) is the major articulator used in the production of speech.

In addition to the lungs, the respiratory system includes the diaphragm and several major muscle groups that assist the lungs in expanding and contracting during inhalation and exhalation. To begin speaking, a preparatory breath is taken and the lungs provide a steady stream of air. This is essential in the production of vowels and consonants, which in English are all pulmonic. During speech production, inhalation only takes up 10percent of the inhalation–exhalation cycle. The other 90percent is devoted to exhalation.

The laryngeal system is primarily comprised of the larynx, which houses the vocal cords (folds). Air coming from the lungs pushes the vocal cords apart, starting the process of phonation. The vocal cords are brought back together due to both muscular activity and Bernoulli’s principle. Consonants that are produced with phonation are termed voiced, and those produced without phonation are termed voiceless. All vowels are voiced. The pharynx, the oral and nasal cavities, and the speech articulators are all parts of the supralaryngeal

■

Every speech sound in a language has a unique sound quality (resonance) associated with it due to a unique vocal tract shape and accompanying vibratory pattern. It is the unique resonance pattern associated with each speech sound that makes them audibly distinct from one another. The size, shape, and composition of any vibrating body, whether it be the vocal tract, a saxophone, or a pop bottle, determine its unique resonance characteristics.

ReviewExercises A. Match each of the laryngeal cartilages at the right with its correct description. ______ 1. shaped like a class ring

a. epiglottis

______ 3. situated atop the cricoid

c. thyroid

______ 2. forms the Adam’s apple

______ 4. prevents food from entering the larynx

b. cricoid

d. arytenoids

B. Fill in the blank with the appropriate answer. 1. The basic rate of vocal fold vibration is called _____________________________________. 2. The __________________________________________ is another name for the lower jaw.

3. a. The anatomical term anterior means __________________________________________. b. The anatomical term inferior means __________________________________________.

Chapter Three 51

c. The anatomical term superior means __________________________________________.

d. The anatomical term posterior means __________________________________________.

4. The __________________________________________ is a major muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdomen. 5. __________________________________________ pressure is the air pressure below the vocal folds.

6. The __________________________________________ is the portion of the tongue just posterior to the tip. The tip is also known as the __________________________________________.

7. The tongue dorsum is composed of the __________________________________________ and the ____________________________________. 8. Another name for sound quality is ___________________________________.

C. Match the anatomical term at the right to the structures referenced. The terms may be used more than once. 1. The pharynx is _____________________ to the esophagus. 2. The lips are _____________________ to the teeth. 3. The dorsum of the tongue is _____________________ to the tip. 4. The uvula is _____________________ to the velum. 5. The nasal cavity is _____________________ to the oral cavity. 6. The tongue is _____________________ to the palate. 7. The larynx is _____________________ to the trachea. 8. The arytenoid cartilages are _____________________ to the thyroid cartilage. 9. The alveolar ridge is _____________________ to the hard palate. 10. The laryngopharynx is _____________________ to the oropharynx.

a. b. c. d.

anterior posterior superior inferior

D. Circle T or F to indicate whether you think the statement is true or false. T

1. The sound /s/ is an alveolar sound.

3. The tongue is involved in production of labiodental sounds.

T T T T T T T T

F F F F F F F F

2. Vibration of the vocal folds is termed articulation.

4. The hyoid bone does not attach to any other bone. 5. The upper lip is supported by the maxilla.

6. When speaking, the period of time devoted to inhalation and exhalation is fairly equal. 7. The root of the tongue attaches to the mandible.

8. When the vocal folds are together, they are said to be adducted. 9. The oral and nasal cavities join at the larynx.

10. The diaphragm contracts and lowers during the process of inhalation.

E. Match the appropriate articulatory description at the right with the initial sound of each word (underlined). The descriptions may be used more than once. 1. window 2. terrible 3. them 4. laundry 5. manage 6. shocked 7. pollute 8. zebra 9. kerosene 10. think

a. b. c. d. e.

dental labial palatal alveolar velar

52 Anatomy and Physiology of the SpeechMechanism

StudyQuestions 1. Describe the process of inhalation and exhalation. Which anatomical structures are involved in these processes? 2. What is Bernoulli’s principle? What is its importance in the production of speech? 3. Define the following terms: a. glottis b. abduction/adduction c. hyoid bone d. uvula 4. Which structures comprise the vocal tract? 5. What is the difference between a voiced and a voiceless sound? 6. What is the pharynx, and what are its three major components? 7. What is the larynx, and what are its major cartilaginous components? 8. What is phonation? Which anatomical structures are involved in phonation? 9. What is articulation? Which anatomical structures are involved in articulation? 10. Identify and describe each of the geographical landmarks of the tongue. 11. What is the difference between an oral sound and a nasal sound? 12. What is meant by the term fundamental frequency? What are the anatomical and nonanatomical determiners of fundamental frequency? 13. Why does an adult male have a different inherent voice pitch than an adult female? 14. What is the source-filter theory of speech production? How does this theory relate to speech sound production?

OnlineResources Search online for Sounds of Speech Iowa. This site provides facial view videos, audio samples, and animated diagrams of the articulators for all English sounds. Spanish and German modules also are available. The program is also available for download from the App Store and Google Play for use on portable devices. Search online for “Larynx cartilages 3D anatomy tutorial.” Select the link for a YouTube video of the laryngeal cartilages. Search online for “The Larynx-Human Anatomy-Theodora.” This webpage offers a detailed description and diagrams of laryngeal anatomy. Search online for “Human Tongue Parts-Organs” of the body. This webpage affords pictures and descriptions of the anatomy of the tongue. In addition, there is a discussion of tongue function and diseases of the tongue.

Chapter 4

Vowels LearningObjectives After reading this chapter, you will be able to: 4.1 Describe English vowel production in terms of tongue height,

tongue advancement, lip rounding, and the tense/lax dimension.

4.2 Transcribe all of the English vowels and diphthongs in spoken

utterances, using the appropriate IPA symbols.

Beginning with this chapter, the focus will be on phonetic transcription. This chapter will emphasize the vowel sounds, and Chapter5 will introduce the consonants. In these two chapters, each phoneme of English will be identified in terms of the manner in which it is articulated. In addition, its phonetic symbol will be introduced in transcription practice. In order for you to feel comfortable with the use of the IPA, ample opportunity will be given for practice. The importance of practice cannot be emphasized enough in the study of phonetic transcription. Therefore, in addition to the printed exercises in this text, you will also have the opportunity to transcribe speech while listening to the instructor and other speakers, either in class or with the Audio Practice files.

English Vowel and Diphthong Production

Learning Objective 4.1 Describe English vowel production in terms of tongue height, tongue advancement, lip rounding, and the tense/lax dimension.

Vowels are phonemes that are produced without any appreciable constriction or blockage of air flow in the vocal tract. As you know, English has many more vowel sounds than those represented by the five Roman alphabet letters “a,” “e,” “i,” “o,” and “u.” Table4.1 lists all of the vowel phonemes in Standard American English along with the way in which they are classified. You will see that there are 14 vowels in American English (not including any of the diphthongs). Contrast that with Spanish, which has only five vowels. Interestingly, most languages throughout the world have an inventory of only five or six vowels, although some languages have an inventory as small as two vowels! Languages with five or six vowels include Russian, Hebrew, Greek, Mandarin Chinese, Japanese, Tagalog, and several Asian Indian languages, including Hindi. In addition to American English, other languages that have a larger inventory of vowels include British English, German, French, Finnish, Norwegian, Hungarian, Romanian, and many African languages (Maddieson, 2013b). The tongue is the primary articulator in the production of vowels. Because the tongue has muscular attachments to the mandible, changes in jaw position also are linked directly to vowel production. As the tongue changes position for production of the individual vowels, the size and shape of the pharynx also change correspondingly. The airstream passes through the oral cavity with virtually no obstruction by the tongue or other major articulators. If the tongue did create a constriction in the vocal

54 Vowels

TABLE 4.1 Standard American English Vowels (diphthongs and vowels found only in regional dialects are notincluded). Vowel Phoneme

Key Word

Tongue Height

Tongue Advancement

Tense/ Lax

Lip Rounding

/i/

key

high

front

tense

unrounded

/e/

rebate

high-mid

front

tense

unrounded

/æ/

had

low

front

lax

unrounded

/ɪ/

win

/ɛ/

/u/ /ʊ/

red

moon wood

high

low-mid high

high

front front back

back

lax

tense lax

unrounded unrounded rounded

rounded

/o/

okay

high-mid

back

tense

rounded

/ɑ/

cod

low

back

tense

unrounded

/ɔ/

law

low-mid

back

tense

rounded

/ə/

about

mid

central

lax

unrounded

/ɚ/

butter

mid

central

lax

rounded

/ʌ/

/ɝ/

bud

bird

low-mid mid

back-central central

lax tense

unrounded rounded

tract, a consonant phoneme would be produced. How, then, are vowels produced if no obstruction occurs in the vocal tract? To answer this question, say the following five words aloud. Pay particular attention to the position of your tongue as you produce the vowel (the middle element) in each word. bead, bid, bayed, bed, bad Now say the words again and leave off the consonant phonemes /b/ and /d/ so that you are saying only the vowel. Once again, pay attention to the position of the tongue. What did you observe? Hopefully you noted that as you said these words in order, the position of your tongue continually lowered. Specifically, it was the body of the tongue that lowered during the production of these vowels. You may have also noted that your jaw lowered at the same time. Vowel phonemes are categorized in relation to the position of the body of the tongue in the mouth during their production. Specifically, vowels are characterized by height and advancement of the tongue body. Tongue height refers to how high (or low) in the oral cavity the tongue is when producing a particular vowel. Tongue advancement relates to how far forward (or backward) in the mouth the tongue is when producing a particular vowel. All of the vowels in English can be described by using these two dimensions of tongue position in the oral cavity. To better understand the idea of tongue height and advancement, it is convenient to think of the oral cavity as the space schematically represented in Figure4.1. This figure is called the vowel quadrilateral due to its characteristic shape. All of the vowels in English are plotted on this two-dimensional figure to represent tongue advancement and height. Examination of Figure4.1 shows that tongue height can be divided into three dimensions: high, mid, and low. Tongue advancement also is divided into three dimensions: front, central, and back. It is these dimensions that will be discussed as each of the vowels are introduced in the following sections. Keep in mind that the vowel quadrilateral is only an approximation of tongue positions for the production of vowels. The absolute tongue position for a vowel may vary across speakers, but the relative positions of the vowels on the quadrilateral are the same for all speakers. For example, a speaker’s /i/ may be produced with a slightly higher or lower tongue position compared to another speaker’s /i/. However, for all speakers, the tongue position for /i/ will always be higher than /æ/ and more front than /u/. In other words, it is the contrast, not just tongue position, that defines vowel phonemes. When we produce a vowel, our

Chapter Four 55

Figure 4.1 The vowel quadrilateral for American Englishvowels.

Front High

Central

i e

Mid

Back

ʊ ə ɛ

Low

ɝ ɚ

ᴧ

u о ɔ a

goal is to make sure the vowel is phonemically different from other vowels, not necessarily to aim for an absolute tongue position. It should also be noted that the relative positions of the vowels may be slightly different depending on regional dialect, a topic that will be elaborated in Chapter9. A secondary characteristic of vowels involves lip rounding, that is, whether the lips are rounded or unrounded (retracted) in their production. For example, compare the vowel sounds in the following two words: “moon” and “mean.” Notice that the first vowel is produced with the lips rounded, whereas the lips are unrounded in association with the second vowel. In English, most vowels produced in the back of the mouth are rounded; the front vowels are all unrounded. Other languages, such as German and French, have rounded front vowels. A summary of the rounded and unrounded vowels of English follows: Unrounded: /i, ɪ, e, ɛ, æ, ɑ, ə, ʌ/ Rounded: /u, ʊ, o, ɔ, ɚ, ɝ/

PRELIMINARY EXERCISE 4A—ROUNDED AND UNROUNDEDVOWELS Using Table4.1 as your guide, indicate whether the following one-syllable words have a rounded or an unrounded vowel (vowel graphemes are in bold letters). Write either R (rounded) or U (unrounded) in the blanks.

1. lean

6. throw

3. road

8. then

2. hook 4. mint

5. chew

7. back 9. wait

10. should

The terms tense and lax also are used to classify vowels. Tense vowels are generally longer in duration and require more muscular effort than lax vowels. Following is a list of the English tense and lax vowels: Tense: /i, e, u, o, ɔ, ɑ, ɝ/ Lax: /ɪ, ɛ, æ, ʊ, ə, ʌ, ɚ/ The best way to distinguish tense and lax vowels is to examine the way they are apportioned among English syllables when speaking. Tense vowels are capable

56 Vowels of ending stressed open syllables. Examples of tense vowels can be found in the open syllables “he” /hi/ and “too” /tu/ and in the first syllable of the word “purpose” /pɝpəs/. Tense vowels also occur in closed syllables, as in the words “feet” /fit/ and “goose” /ɡus/. Conversely, lax vowels never end a stressed open syllable. Placing a lax vowel at the end of a one-syllable word, for instance, would result in the creation of a nonword. Say the word “him” without the final /m/, for example, /hɪ/. This is obviously not a real word. Examples of lax vowels can be found in the words “had” /hæd/ and “look” /lʊk/ (closed syllables) and in the first syllable of the word “aloud” /əlaʊd/ (an unstressed open syllable).

PRELIMINARY EXERCISE 4B—TENSE AND LAXVOWELS Using Table4.1 as your guide, indicate whether the following one-syllable words have a tense or a lax vowel (vowel graphemes are in bold letters). Write either T (tense) or L (lax) in the blanks.

1. seek

3. singe

2. push

5. hot

4. head

6. hoot

7. map

8. clerk

Every vowel in English has a unique description based on the combination of tongue height, tongue advancement, lip rounding, and whether the vowel is tense or lax. Because the oral structures (especially the tongue and pharynx) change during the production of each individual vowel, there is a corresponding change in resonance throughout the entire vocal tract. These changes in resonance not only give each separate vowel a unique acoustic characteristic or quality, they also provide acoustic cues to listeners so that each vowel can be recognized individually. Most English vowels are monophthongs (one vowel sound) because they have one primary articulatory position in the vocal tract. Diphthongs, as you recall, have two distinct articulatory positions—one for each of the two vowels in the diphthong. Table4.2 lists the English diphthongs. During articulation of a diphthong, the tongue is placed in the appropriate position for production of the first element. The tongue then moves to the second element in a continuous gliding motion. The first element of a diphthong is referred to as the onglide portion, and the second element is referred to as the offglide. The tongue rises in the oral cavity when moving from the onglide to the offglide for all of the English diphthongs. Therefore, the offglide is always produced at a higher position in the oral cavity than the onglide (refer to Figure4.2). Note that all English offglides consist of only two vowels, either /ɪ/ (a front vowel) or /ʊ/ (a back vowel). Also, the onglide /a/, found in the diphthongs /aɪ/ and /aʊ/, exists only as a monophthong in some American regional dialects. Because all English vowels are oral sounds, the velum is generally raised to prevent air from being directed into the nasal cavity during their production.

TABLE 4.2 The EnglishDiphthongs. Diphthong

Key Word

/aɪ/

Buy

/ɔɪ/

Toy

/aʊ/ /eɪ/

/oʊ/

Cow Hate Coat

Chapter Four 57

Figure 4.2 Onglide and offglide positions for the diphthongs /eɪ/, /oʊ/, /aɪ/, /ɔɪ/, and /aʊ/ (in reference to the traditional vowelquadrilateral).

ɪ e

ɝ ɚ ᴧ

ɛ æ

In some instances, vowels may take on a nasal quality due to the phonemic environment of a word. This process is called nasalization. Generally, vowels tend to be nasalized when they precede a nasal consonant. For example, the vowel /ɪ/ would be nasalized in articulation of the words “rim” [ɹĩm] or “sing” [sɪ ̃ŋ]. (The tilde over the /ɪ/ indicates nasalization.) Because /m/ and /ŋ/ are nasal consonants, the preceding vowel would become nasalized due to the fact that the velum is lowered during production of the word. Say these words aloud, and you will be able to observe the nasalization of the vowels. Nasalized vowels are typical of some dialects of English and, in some cases, also may be characteristic of a speech disorder.More will be said of vowel nasalization in Chapter6.

Transcription of English Vowels andDiphthongs

Learning Objective 4.2 Transcribe all of the English vowels and diphthongs in spoken utterances, using the appropriate IPA symbols.

In the following sections, the vowels of English will be introduced using the following format: 1. Pronunciation Guide for the phonemes being discussed 2. Phonetic Symbol Name of each phoneme (Pullum & Ladusaw, 1996) 3. Description of each vowel on four dimensions: tongue height, tongue advancement, lip rounding, and tense/lax 4. Sample Words containing the phoneme being discussed 5. Allographs commonly used to represent the phoneme in spelling 6. Discussion involving the production of the vowel, and examples of some dialectal variants 7. Exercises

The FrontVowels PronunciationGuide /i/ /ɪ/

as in “keep” as in “hit”

/kip/ /hɪt/

58 Vowels PronunciationGuide (Cont.) /e/ /eɪ/ /ɛ/ /æ/

as in “rebate” as in “state” as in “led” as in “mat”

/ɹibet/ /steɪt/ (allophone of /e/) /lɛd/ /mæt/

Lowercasei

/i/

Description Height: Advancement: Lip rounding: Tense/lax:

high front unrounded tense

SampleWords fleet

eke

teacher

Easter

yeast

reach

piece

seeks

eaves edict

creek

receipt

credence pilaf

Allographs Grapheme

Example

Grapheme

Example

she

key

mosquito seizure reach

ee ie

keel

relieve

amoeba

Discussion The vowel /i/ is produced by raising the body of the tongue to a high front position in the oral cavity. During production of /i/ (as well as for the other front vowels), the tongue is raised in the vicinity of the hard palate (Figure4.3). If you examine the vowel quadrilateral (Figure4.1), you will see that the vowel /i/ is the highest and most fronted of all vowels. Because it represents an extreme point or corner of the vowel quadrilateral, it is referred to as one of the point vowels. The other point vowels in English include the front vowel /æ/ and the back vowels /u/ and /ɑ/. The lips are unrounded in production of /i/. In addition, /i/ is considered to be tense because it is capable of ending a one-syllable word (open monosyllable)—for example, “key” /ki/ and “pea” /pi/. The mandible is raised during production of /i/ because the tongue is in a high position. In fact, the jaw is in a somewhat closed position. Also, the oropharynx enlarges during production of /i/ because the tongue body and root move superiorly and anteriorly away from the pharynx. As the tongue lowers in production of the front vowels (from /i/ to /æ/), the jaw lowers and the size of the oropharynx decreases (as the tongue moves closer to the pharyngeal area). Refer to Figure4.4 for a comparison of the tongue, jaw, and pharyngeal positions for the two front vowels /i/ and /æ/. Note: In Exercise4.1 and many others in this chapter, consonant IPA symbols are used. The IPA consonant symbols to be used are the same as their Roman alphabet counterparts. These consonant phoneme symbols are /b, d, f, ɡ, h, k,

Chapter Four

l, m, n, p, s, t, v, w, and z/. Examples include “ease” /iz/, “loop” /lup/, and “gone” /ɡɔn/. (Note that the printed “g” and the IPA /ɡ/ are different.) In addition, the consonant symbol /ɹ/ (turned r) also will be used in exercises throughout the chapter to transcribe “r”—e.g., “ring” /ɹɪŋ/, “fair” /fɛɹ/, and “spread” /spɹɛd/.

Figure 4.3 /i/articulation.

/i /

Figure 4.4 /i/ and /æ/articulation.

/i/

/æ/

60 Vowels

Exercise 4.1—THE VOWEL /i/ A. Circle the words that contain the /i/ phoneme. paper

train

Cleveland

seaside

tribal

machine

labor

trees

please

picture

settle

trip

screen

nice

trail

Toledo

foreign

lip

Levi

jeans

B. Circle the phonetic transcriptions that represent English words. /ist/

/flip/

/min/

/hid/

/iv/

/hiɡ/

/lim/

/wins/

/ɹift/

/if/

/tɹit/

/lik/

C. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography (i.e.,use the Roman alphabet to write the words). /lip/

/it/

/bɹizd/

/pip/

/hip/

/spik/

/mit/

/sip/

/klin/

/ɹid/

/did/

/kɹist/

D. Place an “X” next to the pairs of words that share the same vowel sound. dream

drip

east

eaves

seek

wheel

chief

vein

same

land

base

lease

creek

steam

need

pain

bean

heed

creed

cream

Small Capitali

/ɪ/

Description Height:

high (lower than /i/)

Lip rounding:

unrounded

Advancement:

front

Tense/lax:

SampleWords

lax

flit

whittle

inside

dreary

listen

pistol

intend

prince

business really

king

stink

sister

choosy

steer

kitty

Allographs Grapheme

Example

Grapheme

Example

gym

ea(r)

fear

with, ring

England, pretty

Chapter Four

Allographs (Cont.) Grapheme

Example

Grapheme

Example

business

i(r)

mirror

ui -y

ee o

guilt

baby been

women sieve

ee(r) ei(r) ie(r)

e(re)

deer

weird

pierce here

Discussion The body of the tongue is only slightly lower in production of /ɪ/ when compared to /i/ (compare Figures4.3 and 4.5). This is why it is also classified as a high vowel. The jaw is in a fairly closed position during production of /ɪ/, and the lips are unrounded. The main distinction between /ɪ/ and /i/ is that /ɪ/ is lax. Placing /ɪ/ in the final position of a monosyllable would result in a nonsense word, that is, /bɪ/ or /wɪ/. The phoneme /ɪ/ does occur in closed syllables such as in “listen” and “indent.” The vowel /ɪ/ has some quirks in phonetic transcription. In final, unstressed syllables that end in “y”—words like “many,” “gloomy,” and “quantity”—it has been debated by phoneticians and linguists as to whether the phoneme /i/ or /ɪ/ should be used in the transcription of the final sound (i.e.,“many” /mɛnɪ/ or /mɛni/). In reality, what is heard by listeners is a phoneme that tends to be shorter in duration than the vowel /i/ found in stressed syllables (as in “heed”) but longer than /ɪ/ (as in “hid”). Also, the vowel in final, unstressed syllables tends to be retracted, that is, produced farther back in the oral cavity than the traditional place of articulation for /i/ (but not as low as /ɪ/) (Ball & Müller, 2007). Yavaş (2006) states that /i/ and /ɪ/ occur in free variation(refer to Chapter 2) in the final unstressed position of words for some speakers. In addition, Kretzschmar (2008), Ladefoged and Johnson (2015), and Yavaş (2006) suggest that the use of /i/ versus /ɪ/ in final, unstressed syllables may be associated with regional dialect. Although phoneticians and linguists differ in opinion as

Figure 4.5 /ɪ/articulation.

/ɪ/

62 Vowels to which phoneme is the correct choice in transcribing the final sound in words like “many” or “gloomy,” what is clear is that the correct sound can be thought of as an allophone of either /i/ or /ɪ/. Some sources (Shriberg & Kent, 2013; S. Singh & Singh, 2006) recommend the use of /ɪ/, whereas others (Ball & Müller, 2005; Kretzschmar, 2008; Ladefoged & Johnson, 2015) recommend the use of /i/ in transcription of this sound. Check with your instructor to see which method of transcription is preferred. In this text, when transcribing the final “y” in final, unstressed syllables, the sound will be treated as an allophone of /ɪ/. Keep in mind that some individuals will treat this sound as an allophone of /i/ in this particular phonetic context. The phonetic symbol you adopt in this context is not as important as your consistency and understanding of the underlying rationale for your selection of that symbol. Also remember that although we will be using the phonemic symbol /ɪ/ in this particular case, the symbol is representing an allophone of /ɪ/. Another quirk with /ɪ/ involves words that contain the letter string “ing,” such as in the words “sting,” “finger,” and “ink.” Their actual transcriptions are /stɪŋ/, /fɪŋɡɚ/, and /ɪŋk/. Notice the use of the phoneme /ɪ/ and not /i/ in these words. In this phonetic context, /ɪ/ is raised from its usual position (but not so high that it is produced as /i/). /ɪ/ also becomes nasalized due to the lowered velum associated with the nasal consonant “ng” /ŋ/ that follows. The raised and nasalized /ɪ/ in these words is actually an allophone of /ɪ/. Therefore, it is considered more accurate to use /ɪ/ instead of /i/ in this phonetic context. Last, the vowel /ɪ/ is often found in combination with the consonant /ɹ/ as in the words “hear” /hɪɹ/ and “ear” /ɪɹ/. In this case, /ɪ/ + /ɹ/ becomes what is known as an r-colored vowel. R-colored vowels possess an auditory quality known as rhotacization. Rhotacization simply means that the vowel is perceived as having an “r” quality or “r-coloring” associated with it. /ɪɹ/ also may be transcribed as /ɪɚ/ or /ɪ͜ɚ/. The tie bar under the diphthong in the last example is used during transcription by some professionals to signify the production of two speech sounds as one phoneme even though this is not an IPA convention. This text will adopt the use of /ɪɹ/, as opposed to /ɪɚ/ or /ɪ͜ɚ/, when transcribing this phoneme. Check with your instructor to determine which method of transcription is preferred. /ɪɹ/ is only one of several r-colored vowels found in English. There are a few dialectal variants involving the phoneme /ɪ/. For instance, in the southeastern United States, some people pronounce the r-colored vowel /ɪɹ/ with /i/, as in “here” /hiɹ/ or “ear” /iɹ/ (Hartman, 1985). /ɪ/ is also found to occur before /l/ in some Southern pronunciations, as in “really” /rɪlɪ/ and “meal” /mɪl/. Both in African American English and in Southern American dialect, words such as “many,” “pen,” and “cents” might be pronounced as /mɪnɪ/, /pɪn/, and /sɪnts/, respectively. The above observations show that the /i/-/ɪ/ contrast is more obvious in certain contexts than in others. Dialectal variation also affects whether and how the contrast is produced. For example, the /i/-/ɪ/ distinction in words like “feet-fit,” “feel-fill,” and “bean-bin” is fairly easy to identify because both members of the minimal pairs are real words. In contrast, /iɹ/ and /ɪɹ/ are not two distinct words (both result in “ear”); neither are /biɹ/ and /bɪɹ/ (“beer”), /fiɹ/ and /fɪɹ/ (“fear”), or /hiɹ/ and /hɪɹ/ (“here”). That is, the actual vowel being produced in this context (followed by /ɹ/) is most likely somewhere between the two vowel phonemes. Given these variations, a vowel phoneme in one context may not sound exactly like the same vowel phoneme in a different context. It is therefore helpful to use words in the same or a similar context to justify your choice of phonetic symbols. For example, to transcribe the vowel in “seal,” you should compare it to the vowels in minimal pairs like “feel-fill” (“feel” is the better match). To transcribe the vowel in “chin,” you should compare it to the vowels in minimal pairs like “bean-bin” (“bin” is the better match). Using minimal pairs in the same context as references will be most helpful in identifying the best match.

Chapter Four 63

Exercise 4.2—THE VOWEL /ɪ/ A. Contrast the vowels in the following pairs of words (minimal pairs) by saying them aloud. /i/

/ɪ/

/i/

/ɪ/

reed

rid

keel

kill

heed

hid

deal

dill

deep

dip

ceased

cyst

seat

sit

bean

been

sleek

slick

feet

fit

B. Circle the words that contain the /ɪ/ phoneme. peace

friend

enthrall

bitter

mythical

silver

woman

tryst

click

ingest

build

fear

thread

pink

bowling

tried

pride

clear

sporty

synchronize

C. Circle the phonetic transcriptions that represent English words. /vɪl/

/sɪst/

/fɪld/

/wɪns/

/izɪ/

/klip/

/spid/

/hik/

/hɪɹ/

/ɪl/

/sɪɡ/

/pɪɡɪ/

D. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. /stip/

_____________________

/pɪk/

_____________________

/pliz/

_____________________

/kɪst/

_____________________

/mɪt/

_____________________

/bik/

_____________________

/dɪd/

_____________________

/pɪp/

_____________________

/fɪɹ/

_____________________

/mɪstɪ/

_____________________

/ɹilɪ/

_____________________

/ɪndid/

_____________________

E. Place an “X” next to the pairs of words that share the same vowel sound. feel

teach

win

king

lip

thread

mint

inch

been

drink

deed

flea

vent

list

dish

ill

tied

pig

kick

mill

F. Indicate with an “X” the words that contain the r-colored vowel /ɪɹ/. 1.

flirt

smeared

stirred

peerless

worried

10.

stared

bird

steered

11.

earring

shrill

harder

12.

cursor

64 Vowels

/e/ /eɪ/

Lowercasee Description Height:

high-mid

Lip rounding:

unrounded

Advancement: Tense/lax:

front

tense

Sample Words The following set of words all take /e/ in their transcriptions because the syllables that contain the vowel do not receive primary stress. chaOtic

UNdulate

PHOnate

DECade

GYrate

MANdate

layETTE ROtate

The following words all take the allophone /eɪ/ because the syllables are either stressed (including monosyllables) or at the end of a word. aWAY (also ends the word)

conTAgious

creATE

BAby

touPEE (also ends the word)

STATed

PLAYS

BRAID

Allographs Grapheme

a..e

Example

great

hate

gauge

faint

Grapheme

Example

veil

stray

they

Discussion The vowel represented by /e/ or /eɪ/ is a single phoneme, not two distinct phonemes. You may see both symbols being used in transcription, but they are just two ways of representing the same phoneme. The /e/ vowel is produced with the body of the tongue slightly higher than the middle of the mouth; therefore, it is referred to as a high-mid vowel (refer to Figure4.6). /e/ also is unrounded. Like the vowel /i/, it is tense and can be found in the second syllable of the word “mandate.” An allophone of /e/, written as /eɪ/, occurs in stressed syllables and at the ends of words (regardless of stress). As the symbol suggests, this allophone is actually a diphthong and occurs in these particular phonetic contexts as a result of vowel lengthening. The diphthongal allophone consists of the onglide /e/ plus the offglide /ɪ/. In producing /eɪ/, the tongue and vocal tract assume the initial position for the /e/ vowel. The tongue then continues to glide to the high, front position for /ɪ/ (refer to Figure4.2). To capture the dynamic movement due to vowel lengthening in these phonetic contexts, we use the diphthong /eɪ/ when it is produced in stressed syllables and at the end of words (regardless of stress). In contrast, we use the monophthong /e/ when it occurs in unstressed syllables. Some individuals do not use the diphthongal allophone /eɪ/ during transcription; /e/ is used in both stressed and unstressed syllables and at the end of words. Check with your instructor to see which method of transcription is preferred. The use of /eɪ/ may also vary with regional pronunciation. For example, some Southern speakers in the United States use the diphthong /eɪ/ in words such as “fresh” /fɹeɪʃ/ and “leg” /leɪɡ/.

Chapter Four

Figure 4.6 /e/articulation.

/e/

Exercise 4.3—THE VOWEL /e/ – /eɪ/ A. Contrast the vowels in the following minimal pairs. /eɪ/

/ɪ/

/eɪ/

/i/

grade

grid

tame

team

tape

tip

grain

green

drape

drip

trait

treat

take

tick

sale

seal

late

lit

grace

grease

tale

till

wade

weed

faze

fizz

raid

reed

B. Circle the words that contain the /eɪ/ phoneme. trail

rage

wheel

palatial

vice

razor

manage

green

transit

machine

whale

potato

lazy

bread

football

temperate

dale

tackle

daily

bright

C. Circle the phonetic transcriptions that represent English words. /fɹeɪd/

/deɪs/

/dɪnt/

/deɪlɪ/

/kɹeɪt/

/biz/

/spid/

/deɪm/

/neɪp/

/tɹips/

/tɹeɪ/

/fɹil/

/pɪln/

/blid/

/feɪlm/

/stɹeɪp/ Continues

66 Vowels

Exercise 4.3 (Cont.) D. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. /bleɪz/

_________________________

/pleɪket/

_________________________

/pleɪd/

_________________________

/ɹimeɪn/

_________________________

/beɪn/

_________________________

/ɪnmet/

_________________________

/iveɪd/

_________________________

/ɹibet/

_________________________

/kɹɪmp/

_________________________

/steɪnd/

_________________________

/ɹikt/

_________________________

/deɪzɪ/

_________________________

E. Indicate whether the syllable that contains /eɪ/ is either open or closed by writing O or C in the blank. crayon

unmade

prepay

stay

baking

tailor

masonry

betrayed

F. Place an “X” next to the pairs of words that share the same vowel sound. braid

hid

state

rain

feed

hate

fist

flea

lane

aim

cringe

hid

fill

kissed

deal

will

treat

sling

wheel

meat

G. Indicate whether you should use /e/ or /eɪ/ when transcribing the following words. neighbor

Crayola

crate

basin

donate

stay

hooray

prostrate

saber

incubate

Epsilon

/ɛ/

Description Height:

low-mid

Lip rounding:

unrounded

Advancement: Tense/lax:

SampleWords

front lax

met

etch

bury

intend

pretend

repent

heather

elephant

steady relish

where

stencil

terror

marry

tender

pleasures

Chapter Four

Allographs Grapheme

Example

Grapheme

Example

heifer

ai(r)

flair

ea a

ue eo

let

meant many

friend guest

Leonard

ei(r)

ea(r) u(r)

a(re) e(re)

said

their bear

bury bare

where

Discussion The /ɛ/ vowel is commonly referred to as “epsilon,” an IPA symbol borrowed from the Greek alphabet. It is categorized as a low-mid, front vowel (refer to Figure 4.7). Examination of the vowel quadrilateral indicates the tongue body is located midway between the mid and low positions in the mouth for its production. Epsilon is an unrounded and lax vowel. (Placing /ɛ/ at the end of a monosyllabic word creates a nonsense word, e.g.,/tɛ/ or /wɛ/.) Epsilon becomes rhotacized when it occurs before the consonant /ɹ/ in words such as “hair” /hɛɹ/ and “fair” /fɛɹ/; /ɛɹ/ is another example of an r-colored vowel. This phoneme is transcribed by some individuals as /ɛɚ/ or /ɛ͜ɚ/. In the northeastern and southeastern United States, /ɛɹ/ may be pronounced as /eɹ/ as in “hair” /heɹ/ and “fair” /feɹ/. Also, some speakers in the Great Lakes region substitute /ɛ/ for /ɪ/ in words such as “pillow” /pɛloʊ/ and “milk” /mɛlk/ (Hartman, 1985).

Figure 4.7 /ɛ/articulation.

/ɛ/

68 Vowels

Exercise 4.4—THE VOWEL /ɛ/ A. Contrast the vowels in the following minimal pairs by saying them aloud. /ɛ/

/ɪ/

/ɛ/

/eɪ/

red

rid

wed

wade

dead

did

tread

trade

head

hid

shed

shade

etch

itch

met

mate

bell

bill

bread

braid

bear

beer

every

Avery

fair

fear

bell

bale

B. Circle the words that contain the /ɛ/ phoneme. pimple

trip

ensure

tryst

syrup

caring

women

contend

pencil

butter

build

pretzel

thing

thread

prepare

tried

jeep

pistol

unscented

remember

C. Circle the phonetic transcriptions that represent English words. /mɛɹɪ/

/hint/

/split/

/istɛɹ/

/slɛpt/

/fɛɹ/

/ɪɹk/

/meɪd/

/sɪsɪ/

/kleɪ/

/wɛl/

/kɹip/

D. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. /ɹeɪk/

__________________

/stɛɹ/

__________________

/fɪz/

__________________

/tɹeɪl/

__________________

/smɛl/

__________________

/pɹitɛnd/

__________________

/sid/

__________________

/hɛvɪ/

__________________

/kɹeɪn/

__________________

/fɹiz/

__________________

/bɹeɪzd/

__________________

/blɛst/

__________________

E. Place an “X” next to the pairs of words that share the same vowel sound. fill

fear

step

edge

made

cage

bread

breathe

wind

best

flit

red

trade

peel

sill

kit

rid

sing

care

meant

F. Indicate whether the words below end with an open or closed syllable by writing O or C in the blank. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

trail repay strike plea late

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

spree arouse rough undo chow Continues

Chapter Four 69

Exercise 4.4 (Cont.) G. Indicate with an “X” the words that contain the r-colored vowel /ɛɹ/. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

share early dearly compare fluoride

careful sparrow third corridor certain

Ash

/æ/

Description Height:

low

Lip rounding:

unrounded

Advancement: Tense/lax:

front lax

SampleWords trash

jazz

smacked

language

manage

batter

aster

blasphemy

thank

Alabama

stand

tamper

asterisk

fantastic

Capricorn trespass

Allographs Grapheme

Example

a(ng)

hang

a(nk) au ai

back tank

laugh plaid

Discussion The vowel /æ/, referred to as “ash,” is the lowest of the five front vowels. (The vowel /a/, found in some Eastern American dialects, is slightly lower.) Ash is also one of the four point vowels. In reference to the front vowels, the mandible and tongue are in their lowest position for /æ/ (refer to Figure4.4). The size of the oropharynx is small for /æ/ because the tongue body is in an inferior and posterior position (refer to Figures4.4 and 4.8). Like all of the other front vowels, /æ/ is unrounded. Also, /æ/ is lax; no monosyllables end with this sound. Keep in mind that “ash” is used in words when it precedes the nasal /ŋ/, as in “sank” /sæŋk/ and “bang” /bæŋ/. You might be tempted to use the diphthong /eɪ/ in these words. Keep in mind that this vowel is an allophone of /æ/ in this particular context; its perception is affected by nasalization due to the nasal consonant that follows. In the eastern and southern United States, speakers may use the vowel /æ/ in words such as “marry,” “Harry,” and “carry,” that is, /mæɹɪ/, /hæɹɪ/, and /kæɹɪ/.

70 Vowels

Figure 4.8 /æ/articulation.

/æ/

Exercise 4.5—THE VOWEL /æ/ A. Contrast the vowels in the following pairs of words by saying them aloud. /ɛ/

/æ/

/eɪ/

/æ/

led

lad

bade

bad

tend

tanned

haze

has

den

Dan

shale

shall

Ben

ban

mate

mat

bed

bad

lane

language

Kent

can’t

bane

bank

spend

spanned

Dane

dank

B. Circle the words that contain the /æ/ phoneme. straddle

practice

lapse

revamp

pale

panther

repast

straight

Lester

pacific

pacify

farmer

baseball

hanged

chances

cards

jazz

pistol

tamed

bombastic

C. Circle the phonetic transcriptions that represent English words. /klæd/

/pɹid/

/stɹɪv/

/wæd/

/slæpt/

/bɪɹd/

/bæz/

/tɹækt/

/web/

/steɪp/

/spɹɪɡ/

/læzɪ/ Continues

Chapter Four 71

Exercise 4.5 (Cont.) D. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. /klæn/

__________________

/spɪɹ/

__________________

/spɹɪnt/

__________________

/hɛɹɪ/

__________________

/ɹɛk/

__________________

/pækt/

__________________

/teɪstɪ/

__________________

/dɹæɡ/

__________________

/pɹæns/

__________________

/bɛɹɪ/

__________________

/læft/

__________________

/tinz/

__________________

E. Place an “X” next to the pairs of words that share the same vowel sound. badge

rage

hair

bend

seed

shade

lick

beer

cab

blonde

beak

bless

tray

whale

trap

bake

crank

shag

lapse

crag

Complete Assignment 4-1.

The BackVowels PronunciationGuide /u/

as in “toot”

/tut/

/o/

as in “obese”

/obis/

/ʊ/

/oʊ/ /ɔ/

/ɑ/

as in “look”

/lʊk/

as in “vote”

/voʊt/

as in “dawn”

/dɔn/

as in “not”

(allophone of /o/)

/nɑt/

Lowercaseu

/u/

Description Height:

high

Lip rounding:

rounded

Advancement:

back

Tense/lax:

SampleWords

tense

chew

ewe

uncouth

strewn

Truman

cruel

cucumber

tulip

futile clue

Allographs

truth stupid

spew

tuna

loot

super

Grapheme

Example

Grapheme

Example

true

suit

Pluto

u..e

tune

72 Vowels Allographs (Cont.) Grapheme

Example

Grapheme

Example

moon

stew

o..e wo oe

through move two

shoe

ieu

lieu

maneuver

ioux

Sioux

Discussion During production of /u/ (as well as the other back vowels), the body of the tongue is raised in the vicinity of the velum (Figure4.9). /u/ is an English point vowel because of its extremely high, back tongue body position. /u/ is produced with lip rounding, as are most of the other back vowels. Lip rounding is evident in Figure4.9 (production of /u/) when compared with Figure4.3 (production of /i/), where the lips remain unrounded. /u/ is tense and is found at the end of the one-syllable words “through,” “blue,” and “skew.” In raising the tongue to such a high position for /u/, the tongue root is forced to be somewhat advanced, widening the pharynx. As the tongue lowers in production of the back vowels from /u/ to /ɑ/, the pharynx narrows accordingly, due to the retreating movement of the tongue root, posteriorly. Figure4.10 displays the different tongue, jaw, lip, and pharyngeal positions for /u/ and /ɑ/. There is one thing to keep in mind when transcribing the phoneme /u/ in words like “you,” “few,” and “music.” In these words, /u/ is actually preceded by the phoneme /j/ (/ju/, /fju/, and /mjuzɪk/). (The /j/ phoneme is the palatal “y” sound.) Without the /j/ phoneme, these words would sound like “oo,” “foo,” and “moosic,” respectively. Some phonetics texts treat the phoneme sequence /ju/ as a diphthong. In this text, however, we will treat /j/ + /u/ as separate monophthongs. As you examine the allographs of /u/ shown earlier, you will see several varied spellings for this phoneme.

Figure 4.9 /u/articulation.

/u/

Chapter Four

Figure 4.10 /u/ and /ɑ/articulation.

/u/ /a/

Exercise 4.6—THE VOWEL /u/ A. Circle the words that contain the /u/ phoneme. ghoul

oboe

crew

plural

butter

stuck

Lucifer

must

should

luck

lusty

shook

fuchsia

look

molding

stupor

loosely

glue

blouse

choose

B. Circle the phonetic transcriptions that represent English words. /ust/

/kɹud/

/pɹus/

/tul/

/suv/

/tuɡ/

/pus/

/wund/

/pul/

/ɹup/

/lus/

/sluɡ/

C. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. /spun/

__________________

/sup/

__________________

/tun/

__________________

/lud/

__________________

/ɹut/

__________________

/stɹu/

__________________

/mud/

__________________

/flu/

__________________

/klu/

__________________

/ɡɹum/

__________________

/ɹuf/

__________________

/snut/

__________________ Continues

74 Vowels

Exercise 4.6 (Cont.) D. Indicate with an “X” the pairs of words that share the same vowel phoneme. 1. could

showed

6. brood

hood

3. lute

book

8. hoops

poor

2. suit

loon

4. crew

7. stood

scoot

5. push

9. feud 10. muse

foot

could moose cook

E. Indicate with an “X” the words that have the phoneme sequence /j/ + /u/, as in “you.” 1. oozing

6. fuming

3. huge

8. useful

2. cute

7. Pluto

4. ruined

9. viewing

5. sloop

10. spooky

Upsilon

/ʊ/

Description Height:

high (lower than /u/)

Lip rounding:

rounded

Advancement:

back

Tense/lax:

SampleWords

lax

could

sugar

pushed

bull

hood

put

took

obscure*

should wolf

would full

cushion stood

lure*

unsure*

*/ʊ/ in these words may be pronounced differently, depending on a speaker’s dialect. Allographs Grapheme

Example

could

u(r) oo o

push

secure book wolf

Discussion The vowel /ʊ/ (upsilon) is produced with the tongue body only slightly lower in the oral cavity than for /u/ (refer to Figure4.11). Therefore, it also is termed high. Like /u/, the vowel /ʊ/ is rounded; unlike /u/, it is lax. You will never see open syllables ending with this phoneme. Upsilon becomes rhotacized in combination with the consonant /ɹ/ in formation of the r-colored vowel /ʊɹ/ (also transcribed as /ʊɚ/ or /ʊ͜ɚ/). The combination of /ʊ/ + /ɹ/ may be used by some speakers in the pronunciation of the words “tour” /tʊɹ/ and “lure” /lʊɹ/.

Chapter Four

Figure 4.11 /ʊ/articulation.

/ʊ/

Others may pronounce these words as if they rhymed with “core,” that is, /tɔɹ/ and /lɔɹ/ (the vowel /ɔ/ will be discussed later in this chapter). Notice that there are many fewer allographs associated with /ʊ/ than for /u/. When the allograph “oo” is followed by /l/ (as in pool, cool, fool, and tool), the resulting pronunciation may be either /ʊ/ or /u/, depending on a speaker’s dialect. Examine the following possible pronunciations of these words: pool cool

/pʊl/ /kʊl/

or or

/pul/ /kul/

fool tool

/fʊl/

/tʊl/

or or

/ful/

/tul/

Some Eastern speakers use the vowel /ʊ/ in words such as “room” /rʊm/ and “broom” /brʊm/.

Exercise 4.7—THE VOWEL /ʊ/ A. Contrast the vowels in the following words. /u/

/ʊ/

/u/

/ʊ/

who’d

hood

food

foot

cooed

could

shoed

should

Luke

look

stewed

stood

B. Circle the words that contain the /ʊ/ phoneme. hole

wooden

snooze

stunned

shut

punched

luscious

spook

hood

couldn’t

pulled

shook

flushed

mistook

beauty

person

rudely

cooker

brood

stood Continues

76 Vowels

Exercise 4.7 (Cont.) C. Circle the phonetic transcriptions that represent English words. /buk/

/stʊ/

/ɹul/

/sul/

/lʊv/

/lum/

/ɹʊk/

/fɹut/

/tɹups/

/stʊɹ/

/buts/

/slʊɡ/

D. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. /pʊs/

_____________________

/tʊɹ/

_____________________

/tɹu/

_____________________

/hʊk/

_____________________

/stʊd/

_____________________

/lum/

_____________________

/dum/

_____________________

/fluk/

_____________________

/ɡɹu/

_____________________

/pɹun/

_____________________

/ɡʊd/

_____________________

/kɹʊk/

_____________________

E. Place an “X” next to the pairs of words that share the same vowel sound.

/o/ /oʊ/

1. loot

foot

6. what

look

2. tune

mute

7. nook

stood

3. coupe

soon

8. rust

rook

4. flood

cute

9. goof

cruise

5. would

soot

10. mutt

look

Lowercaseo Description Height:

high-mid

Lip rounding:

rounded

Advancement: Tense/lax:

back

tense

SampleWords The following words all take the allophone /o/ in their transcription because the syllables that contain the vowel are not stressed. boDAcious

RIboflavin

broCADE

proHIBit

CroAtian

ptoMAINE

floTILLa

roTAtion

The following words all take the allophone /oʊ/ because the syllables are either stressed (including monosyllables) or are at the end of a word. PRObate

BOWL

BLOATed

reMOTE

STOic

beLOW (also end of word)

SLOWer

BELLow (end of word)

Chapter Four

Be sure to compare and contrast the words “below” and “bellow.” The second syllable in “below” is stressed, and the second syllable in “bellow” is not. However, both words are transcribed with /oʊ/ because this sound ends both words. In either case, the final phoneme is correspondingly lengthened. Allographs Grapheme

Example

Grapheme

Example

o..e

rose

ow ew

open road

bowl sew

eau au

foe

soul

beau

café au lait

Discussion The vowel represented by /o/ or /oʊ/ is a single phoneme, not two distinct phonemes. You may see both symbols being used in transcription, but they are just two ways of representing the same phoneme. The body of the tongue is in the high-middle portion of the oral cavity during production of /o/ (refer to Figure 4.12). In many ways this phoneme is similar to the front allophones /e/ and /eɪ/. That is, the diphthong /oʊ/ occurs in stressed syllables and at the ends of words (regardless of stress), and the monophthong /o/ occurs in unstressed syllables. Therefore, /oʊ/ and /o/ are allophones of the same phoneme. Production of the diphthong begins with the tongue in position for the onglide /o/, in the mid-back portion of the mouth. The tongue then glides to a higher position for production of the offglide /ʊ/ (refer to Figure4.12). Some individuals do not use the diphthongal allophone /oʊ/ during transcription; /o/ is used in both stressed and unstressed syllables and at the end of words. Again, check with your instructor to see which method of transcription is preferred.

Figure 4.12 /o/articulation.

/о/

78 Vowels

Exercise 4.8—THE VOWEL /o/ – /oʊ/ A. Contrast the vowels in the following minimal pairs. /oʊ/

/u/

/oʊ/

/ʊ/

grow

grew

coke

cook

slope

sloop

broke

brook

cope

coop

code

could

lobe

lube

hoed

hood

grope

group

showed

should

stowed

stewed

croak

crook

B. Circle the words that contain the /oʊ/ phoneme. mope

aloof

root

toll

noose

slowed

pond

push

soda

lost

loaded

lasso

nosy

book

sugar

remote

dole

spoke

doily

wholly

C. Circle the phonetic transcriptions that represent English words. /toʊ/

/boʊn/

/stup/

/pɹʊb/

/bʊt/

/floʊd/

/boʊd/

/kɹud/

/stub/

/stud/

/flʊk/

/woʊnt/

D. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. /moʊld/

___________________

/tupeɪ/

___________________

/kupt/

___________________

/bɹuzd/

___________________

/boʊnɪ/

___________________

/bændeɪd/

___________________

/ivoʊk/

___________________

/kʊkɪ/

___________________

/stoʊd/

___________________

/koʊɛd/

___________________

/doʊpɪ/

___________________

/ɹizum/

___________________

E. Indicate whether you should use /o/ or /oʊ/ when transcribing the following words. Romania

snowman

bowling

corroded

location

though

stolen

Jell-O

notation

magnolia

coagulate

potential

Openo

/ɔ/

Description Height:

low-mid

Lip rounding:

rounded

Advancement: Tense/lax:

back

tense

Chapter Four

SampleWords prawn

thought

vault

wrong

all

sought

off

gone

awl

cord

ought frog

autumn hoard

haul soar

Note: Some speakers (depending on dialect) may use the phoneme /ɑ/ in the production of some of these words. Allographs Grapheme

Example

Grapheme

Example

laud

call

wrought lawn

log

broad

Discussion The /ɔ/ vowel is referred to as “open o.” This rounded vowel is produced with the tongue slightly lower in the oral cavity than /o/, in the low-mid position (refer to Figure 4.13). In addition, it is a tense vowel, and it is found in some individuals’ pronunciations of the words “saw,” “haul,” “caught,” and “awl.” This vowel is difficult for many students to recognize since it is not produced by all speakers of American English; its use varies considerably with regional dialect. In many regions of the United States, the vowel has merged with /ɑ/ (discussed in the next section) so that both vowels are produced as /ɑ/.This topic will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter9. In words such as “corn,” “bored,” and “orbit,” it is the rhotacized or r-colored vowel /ɔɹ/ (also transcribed as /ɔɚ/ or /ɔ͜ɚ/) that is used in their transcriptions— /kɔɹn/, /bɔɹd/, and /ɔɹbɪt/. Also, some individuals will pronounce the words “lure” and “tour” as /lɔɹ/ and /tɔɹ/, respectively. Others will use /ɔɹ/ in the production of the word “sure,” that is, /ʃɔɹ/.

Figure 4.13 /ɔ/articulation.

/ɔ/

80 Vowels

Exercise 4.9—THE VOWEL /ɔ/ A. Circle the phonetic transcriptions that represent possible pronunciations of English words. /bɔt/

/dɹʊm/

/stɔn/

/bɹɔn/

/koʊt/

/ɡɹɔn/

/tɔk/

/pʊl/

/lups/

/fɔɹt/

/flum/

/ɔɹn/

B. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. /spɔɹt/

_____________________

/spɹɔl/

_____________________

/kʊd/

_____________________

/stʊd/

_____________________

/pɹoʊb/

_____________________

/fɹɔt/

_____________________

/pɹuv/

_____________________

/kɔɹps/

_____________________

/stɔɹd/

_____________________

/hʊkt/

_____________________

/ɔfʊl/

_____________________

/doʊnet/

_____________________

C. Indicate with an “X” the words that contain the r-colored vowel /ɔɹ/. 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

farm third horrid

7. 8. 9.

storm worm thorn

lured worth spar

Script ɑ

/ɑ/

Description Height:

low

Lip rounding:

unrounded

Advancement:

back

Tense/lax:

tense

SampleWords rotten

ostrich

posse

cause

bond

stop

car

problem

father plod

apart

bronze

latte

watch

Hans

smart

Note: Some speakers (depending on dialect) may use the phoneme /ɔ/ in production of some of these sample words. Allographs Grapheme

Example

Grapheme

Example

rob

e(r)

sergeant

a(r)

shawl mart

ea(r)

heart

Chapter Four

Discussion /ɑ/ is a point vowel due to the tongue’s extremely low, back articulatory position in the oral cavity during its production (refer to Figure 4.14). It is the only unrounded back vowel in English. /ɑ/ is also tense. Due to dialectal variation in pronunciation, some individuals use this vowel instead of /ɔ/, especially in pronunciation of words such as “saw,” “haul,” “caught,” and “awl.” The /ɑ/ vowel is rhotacized when in combination with /ɹ/ to form the r-colored vowel /ɑɹ/ (also transcribed as /ɑɚ/ or /ɑ͜ɚ/) as in the words “bark” /bɑɹk/ and “art” /ɑɹt/. The distinction /ɔ/ (as in “caught”) and /ɑ/ (as in “cot”) can be confusing due to dialectal variation. Some speakers pronounce the distinction, but others do not. For speakers who do not make the distinction, the two vowels have effectively merged and the actual vowel being produced is somewhere between the two sounds, making words like “caught” and “cot” homophones. However, whether you say “caught” and “cot” in the same way or differently, you will most likely produce two distinct vowels when they are followed by /ɹ/. That is, your /ɔɹ/ (as in “court”) and /ɑɹ/ (as in “cart”) will most likely sound different even if your /ɔ/ (as in “caught”) and /ɑ/ (as in “cot”) sound the same. Other examples of the distinction include “or” versus “are,” “core” versus “car,” “bore” versus “bar,” “for” versus “far,” and “pore” versus “par.” With these observations, we can conclude that for some speakers, /ɔ/ and /ɑ/ may not appear to be distinct vowel phonemes, but the phonemic difference becomes obvious when the vowels are followed by /ɹ/. Therefore, when you transcribe someone who does not distinguish the vowels in “caught” and “cot,” you may use either /ɔ/ and /ɑ/ for both words because the two vowels have merged into one phoneme in this (non-rhotacized) context. However, you will need two distinct phonetic symbols to transcribe the vowels in “court” /ɔɹ/ and “cart” /ɑɹ/ because the two vowels remain distinct phonemes in this (rhotacized) context.

Figure 4.14 /ɑ/articulation.

/a/

82 Vowels

Exercise 4.10—THE VOWEL /ɑ/ A. Contrast the vowels in the following words. /oʊ/

/ɑ/ (or) /ɔ/ (depending on dialect)

boat

bought

bowl

ball

coat

caught

load

laud

sewed

sawed

loan

lawn

B. Circle the phonetic transcriptions that represent possible pronunciations of English words. /wond/

/tɔb/

/hɑɹm/

/blɑb/

/koʊd/

/sɔt/

/blɑd/

/ɑɹmɪ/

/fɹɔd/

/pʊnt/

/ɑd/

/kɑd/

C. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. /fɹɑst/

_____________________

/zɑɹ/

_____________________

/lʊkt/

_____________________

/pɹund/

_____________________

/bɔɹd/

_____________________

/blɔnd/

_____________________

/kɹoʊm/

_____________________

/ɑnsɛt/

_____________________

/wɑnt/

_____________________

/kɹɔdæd/

_____________________

/stɑɹvd/

_____________________

/ɑɹdvɑɹk/

_____________________

D. Indicate with an “X” the words that contain the r-colored vowel /ɑɹ/. 1.

war

orchard

quartz

poorly

2. 4. 5. 6.

cleared flare

starred dirt

March

smarter 10. 11. carbon 12. spore

Complete Assignment 4-2.

The CentralVowels PronunciationGuide /ə/

as in “alone”

/əloʊn/

(unstressed)

/ɚ/

as in “perhaps”

/pɚhæps/

(unstressed)

/ʌ/

/ɝ/

as in “but”

as in “heard”

/bʌt/ /hɝd

(stressed) (stressed)

Chapter Four 83

Schwa

/ə/

Description Height:

mid

Lip rounding:

unrounded

Advancement:

central

Tense/lax:

lax

SampleWords astound

paraded

plantation

command

roasted

salami

mountain

carousel

rearrange ransom

tangent

ketchup

spumoni tuna

relevant undone

Note: /ə/ occurs in unstressed syllables in all of these words. Allographs Grapheme

Example

Grapheme

Example

cologne

merrily

u a

untrue

machine

villain

parliament

nation

ou oi e

jealous

porpoise happen

surgeon

Discussion /ə/ is commonly known as “schwa.” Schwa is produced with the tongue body in the most central portion of the mouth cavity. The entire vocal tract is in its most neutral configuration during production of /ə/. It is difficult to discuss this vowel without discussing another vowel concurrently, namely /ʌ/, referred to as turned v. These vowels are used to represent allophones of the same sound, even though most phoneticians and clinicians treat them as two separate vowel phonemes. (There is actually a slight difference in their place of production in the oral cavity.) The basic distinction between these vowels is that schwa occurs only in unstressed syllables and turned v occurs only in stressed syllables. The distribution of these vowels is similar to /e/ and /eɪ/ and /o/ and /oʊ/, in reference to their occurrence in stressed and unstressed syllables: Stressed eɪ

oʊ ʌ

Unstressed e

o ə

Schwa is unrounded because the lips do not protrude in its production. It is also a lax vowel.

84 Vowels

Exercise 4.11—THE VOWEL /ə/ A. Circle the words that contain the /ə/ phoneme. rowing

decision

control

untamed

laundry

lasagna

injure

glamour

opera

petunia

wooded

poorly

motion

puppy

cockroach

Laverne

ruled

holding

fuchsia

lotion

B. Circle the phonetic transcriptions that represent English words. /sətɪn/

/zəbɹɑ/

/əbeɪt/

/əluf/

/dɹɑmə/

/ləpʊɹ/

/bəlun/

/ɹədæn/

/səpoʊz/

/ɹəpik/

/bɹəzɪl/

/əndu/

C. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. /pinət/

___________________

/kənteɪn/

___________________

/əkɹɔs/

___________________

/lɛmən/

___________________

/vəlɔɹ/

___________________

/bətɑn/

___________________

/səpɔɹt/

___________________

/əwɔɹd/

___________________

/kɔfɪn/

___________________

/eɪpɹəl/

___________________

/plətun/

___________________

/kəmænd/

___________________

TurnedV

/ʌ/

Description Height:

low-mid

Lip rounding:

unrounded

Advancement:

back-central

Tense/lax:

SampleWords

lax

rub

button

Monday

mustard

flood

undone

rushing

public

trouble abundance

luncheon stumble

luckily

redundant

scrumptious wonderful

Note: /ʌ/ occurs in only the stressed syllables of these words. Allographs Grapheme

Example

Grapheme

Example

done

double

crumb flood

does

Discussion Turned v is found in monosyllabic words and stressed syllables. It is produced slightly lower and farther back in the oral cavity than /ə/ (refer to Figure4.15). Like /ə/, /ʌ/ is unrounded and lax. Although /ʌ/ can occur in

Chapter Four

Figure 4.15 /ʌ/articulation.

/ᴧ/

one-syllable words, it does not usually occur in open syllables in English. One exception might be in the production of the word “the,” which usually does not receive stress in conversational English. Students often confuse /ʌ/ with the vowel /ʊ/. Compare the minimal pairs in Exercise4.12A that contrast these two phonemes.

Exercise 4.12—THE VOWEL /ʌ/ A. Contrast the vowel /ʌ/ in the following minimal pairs. /ʌ/

/ʊ/

/ʌ/

/u/

/ʌ/

/ɑ, ɔ/

cud

could

rub

rube

hut

hot

shuck

shook

done

dune

mum

mom

tuck

took

bust

boost

hug

hog

buck

book

dumb

doom

bust

bossed

stud

stood

rum

room

rub

rob

putt

put

spun

spoon

gun

gone

luck

look

glum

gloom

rubbed

robbed

B. Circle the words that contain the /ʌ/ phoneme. awful

blunder

laundry

Hoover

custard

laborious

Sunday

lawyer

pushy

cushion

hundred

trumpet

cologne

abundant

plural

shouldn’t

charades

mundane

wander

conducive Continues

86 Vowels

Exercise 4.12 (Cont.) C. Examine the English words in the first column and the transcriptions in the second column. Place an “X” next to the transcription if it is wrong. Examples: book

/bʊk/

_______

subbed

/sʊbd/

_______ X

1. hooked

/hʌkt/

_______

2. bond

/bʊnd/

_______

3. bluff

/blʌf/

_______

4. hood

/hud/

_______

5. cluck

/klʌk/

_______

6. rookie

/ɹʌkɪ/

_______

7. mistook

/mɪstʊk/

_______

8. lucky

/lʌkɪ/

_______

9. rubbing

/ɹʊbɪŋ/

_______

10. crooked

/kɹɔkəd/

_______

D. Circle the phonetic transcriptions that represent English words. /klʊstɪ/

/əpʊft/

/dʊkɪ/

/sʌntæn/

/ɹizən/

/kɹɑmd/

/pʊlɪ/

/vɪstʌ/

/mʌstɪ/

/əndʌn/

/plʌmət/

/plæzə/

E. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. /pɛɹəs/

_____________________

/ɹobʌst/

_____________________

/hʌnɪ/

_____________________

/sʌdən/

_____________________

/əlɑt/

_____________________

/kəbus/

_____________________

/kənvɪns/

_____________________

/tʌndɹə/

_____________________

/ɡɑɹdəd/

_____________________

/kəlæps/

_____________________

/flʌbd/

_____________________

/bəfun/

_____________________

F. Indicate whether /ʌ/ or /ə/ should be used in transcribing the following words by circling the appropriate symbol. lumber

/ʌ/

/ə/

suspend

/ʌ/

/ə/

abort

/ʌ/

/ə/

suppose

/ʌ/

/ə/

shaken

/ʌ/

/ə/

induct

/ʌ/

/ə/

contain

/ʌ/

/ə/

serpent

/ʌ/

/ə/

thunder

/ʌ/

/ə/

rusty

/ʌ/

/ə/

G. Indicate with an “X” the following pairs of words that share the same vowel phoneme. 1. nuts

could

6. crook

fund

2. foot

stoop

7. blood

crust

3. done

rubbed

8. runs

floods

4. crumb

rust

9. loom

food

5. cook

should

10. rush

look

Chapter Four 87

/ɚ/

Right-hookSchwa “Schwar” Description Height:

mid

Lip rounding:

rounded

Advancement:

central

Tense/lax:

lax

SampleWords pertain

luxury

chattering

percussion

runner

under

countered

hibernation

surround

treasure

ergonomic

flirtatious

ferocious

Saturday

mattered harbor

Note: /ɚ/ occurs only in unstressed syllables in the sample words shown here. Allographs Grapheme

Example

Grapheme

Example

lunar

flirtatious

labor

urbane

winner martyr

Discussion /ɚ/ is often referred to as “schwar” because the phonetic symbol visually resembles schwa but in addition possesses rhotacization (r-coloring). Schwar is not easily defined by referring only to the four categories used previously to describe the other English vowels, that is, height, advancement, lip rounding, and tenseness. Production of /ɚ/ involves additional tongue movement and is formed by constricting the pharynx and increasing the space in the oral cavity in front of the tongue by either (1) raising the tongue tip and curling it posteriorly toward the alveolar ridge or (2) lowering the tongue tip while bunching the tongue body in the region of the palate (Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, 1999; Ladefoged & Johnson, 2015; MacKay, 1987). In either case, the associated “r” quality is due to a constriction of the tongue in the epiglottal region of the pharynx (Ladefoged & Johnson, 2015). The IPA chart(see Figure2.1 in Chapter2) shows that schwar is missing from the vowel quadrilateral. The IPA recommends the use of /ə/ plus /˞ /, the diacritic for rhoticity (known as the “right-hook”), as the proper notation for transcribing this rhotacized mid-central vowel, that is,/ə/ + /˞ /= /ɚ/. You will find the rhoticity diacritic /˞ / located in the IPA chart in the last row of the first column of the diacritics section (Figure2.1). Interestingly, the Handbook of the International Phonetic Association (1999) also recommends the use of the rhoticity diacritic in transcribing other r-colored vowels (e.g.,“far” /fɑ˞ / or “core” /kɔ˞ /). Like schwa, /ɚ/ is produced only in unstressed syllables. Therefore, it is lax. One distinguishing feature of schwar is that it is produced with lip rounding. The degree of lip rounding varies from speaker to speaker. (Some phoneticians argue that this vowel is unrounded.) Note: Words such as “ring” and “raisin” begin with the phoneme /ɹ/, not with the phoneme /ɚ/. That is, /ɹɪŋ/ and /ɹeɪzɪn/ not /ɚɪŋ/ and /ɚeɪzɪn/. Similarly, the words “unread” and “berate” should be transcribed as /ənɹɛd/ and /biɹeɪt/, not /ənɚɛd/ and /biɚeɪt/.

88 Vowels

Exercise 4.13—THE VOWEL /ɚ/ A. Contrast the underlined sounds in the words below. /ɚ/

/ɹ/

r-colored vowels

slumber

dress

queer

peruse

ribbon

mere

over

cream

snare

stupor

thread

chair

walker

frost

stored

mustard

around

floor

B. Circle the words that contain the /ɚ/ phoneme. clover

rebel

barley

dearly

fearless

endear

perjure

fester

carbon

torment

harbor

electric

tremor

written

poorly

breezy

laundered

perhaps

torpedo

surprise

C. Circle the phonetic transcriptions that represent English words. /kɑnvɚt/

/pɚteɪn/

/pɚsɛnt/

/lɛpɚd/

/ɹɑbɚ/

/tɚoʊd/

/dɹimɚ/

/fɚəst/

/sɚvɛs/

/ɚɛdɪ/

/ʌnfɛɹ/

/hɪndɚ/

D. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. /dɹɛsɚ/

___________________

/kəntɔɹt/

___________________

/kæmɹə/

___________________

/pɚɑnə/

___________________

/ɹʌbɚ/

___________________

/pɚu/

___________________

/mɑɹbəl/

___________________

/sɪmɚ/

___________________

/təɹeɪn/

___________________

/kɛɹosin/

___________________

/flʌstɚd/

___________________

/əweɪtəd/ ___________________

Right-Hook ReversedEpsilon

/ɝ/

Description Height:

mid

Lip rounding:

rounded

Advancement: Tense/lax:

central tense

SampleWords curse

third

Thursday

aversion

rehearse

purple

thirsty

nursery

deter

furnace

surgeon service

worry

percolate

reverse

murder*

*Note: The word “murder” would be transcribed as /mɝdɚ/.

Chapter Four

Allographs Grapheme

Example

Grapheme

Example

ear

learn

curt

or er

word

perk

shirt

Myrtle

Discussion /ɝ/ occurs only in stressed syllables. It is produced in a manner similar to /ɚ/ with the lips rounded, although the degree of rounding varies among speakers (refer to Figure4.16). (Like schwar, this vowel is considered unrounded by some phoneticians.) /ɝ/ is the only central vowel that is considered to be tense. It is found at the end of the one-syllable (stressed) words “her,” “stir,” and “fur” and, for some speakers, “sure.” We now can add /ɚ/ and /ɝ/ to the table of stressed and unstressed vowel allophones: Stressed eɪ

Unstressed e

oʊ

Figure 4.16 /ɝ/articulation.

/ɝ/

Similar to the symbol for schwar /ɚ/, /ɝ/ is not located in the vowel quadrilateral. Instead, the symbol is a combination of reversed epsilon /ɜ/ plus the righthook diacritic /˞ /, hence its name, “right-hook reversed epsilon.” Reversed epsilon /ɜ/ is a non-rhotacized, mid-central vowel, part of the IPA chart but not generally used by speakers of American English. However, in British English and in some American dialects, it is the vowel found in words such as “word” and “curtains” (i.e.,/wɜd/ and /kɜtənz/). Try saying these two words without r-coloring when trying to produce reversed epsilon.

90 Vowels Right-hook reversed epsilon /ɝ/ is often confused with r-colored vowels. Especially confusing are /ɝ/ versus /ɪɹ/ and /ɛɹ/. Examine the following word combinations, paying close attention to the distinction between /ɝ/ and the r-colored vowels. Each of the words in the left column contain a different r-colored vowel. All of the words in the right column contain /ɝ/. Say each word pair (i.e.,fear-fur; hair-her, etc.) listening to the differences between the r-colored vowels and /ɝ/. Also, be sure to look at Exercise 4.14A.

/ɪɹ/

fur

/ɪɹ/

beer

burr

star

stir

/ɑɹ/

shark

shirk

hair

/ɔɹ/

court

/ʊɹ/

/ɝ/

fear

/ɛɹ/

/ɑɹ/

/ɝ/

tour

her

/ɛɹ/

curt

/ɔɹ/

tur(n)

/ʊɹ/

spare

ward

lure

spur

word

lear(n)

Exercise 4.14—THE VOWEL /ɝ/ A. Contrast the vowel /ɝ/ with the r-colored vowels in the following minimal contrasts. /ɝ/

/ɑɹ/

/ɔɹ/

/ɪɹ/

/ɛɹ/

stir

star

store

steer

stare

purr

par

pore

peer

pair

fur

far

for

fear

fair

burr

bar

bore

beer

bare

myrrh

mar

mere

mare

B. Circle the words that contain the /ɝ/ phoneme. forward

muster

warship

steered

morale

disturbed

pretend

wordy

distort

persistent

terrible

turban

January

conserve

choir

conversion

arid

stirrup

barren

fearless

C. Circle the phonetic transcriptions that represent English words. /kʌstɚd/

/lɜ˞ dɪ/

/kəɹɪɹ/

/vɜ˞ səz/

/pɜ˞ sən/

/hɜ˞ dəd/

/fɜ˞ mɚ/

/dɜ˞ sənt/

/plædɜ˞ /

/fɔɹən/

/ɜ˞ bɔɹt/

/kɜ˞ sɚ/

D. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. /smɜ˞ kt/

___________________

/kənvɜ˞ t/

___________________

/ovɜ˞ t/

___________________

/wɪspɚ/

___________________

/kɛɹət/

___________________

/bɜ˞ bən/

___________________

/sʌbɚb/

___________________

/skwɜ˞ ts/

___________________

/supɜ˞ b/

___________________

/səhɛɹə/

___________________ Continues

Chapter Four 91

Exercise 4.14 (Cont.) E. Indicate whether /ɜ˞ / or /ɚ/ should be used in transcribing the following words by circling the appropriate symbol. erasure

/ɜ˞ /

/ɚ/

ermine

/ɜ˞ /

/ɚ/

surprise

/ɜ˞ /

/ɚ/

color

/ɜ˞ /

/ɚ/

furnace

/ɜ˞ /

/ɚ/

infer

/ɜ˞ /

/ɚ/

curtail

/ɜ˞ /

/ɚ/

terror

/ɜ˞ /

/ɚ/

immerse

/ɜ˞ /

/ɚ/

duster

/ɜ˞ /

/ɚ/

F. Indicate with an “X” the pairs of words that share the same vowel phoneme. _____ 1. herd

cheered

_____ 6. hair

queer

_____ 2. cord

word

_____ 7. birch

lurk

_____ 3. lured

stored

_____ 8. hoard

lord

_____ 4. ark

smart

_____ 9. pear

heard

_____ 5. fears

cheer

_____ 10. term

peered

G. For the following, indicate whether the word contains an r-colored vowel or /ɜ˞ / (in any syllable) by placing the correct phoneme symbol in the blank. Examples: /ɪɹ/

cheer

/ɝ/

stir

1. mirth

11. appearance

2. flared

12. carol

3. cirrus

13. furtive

4. serenade

14. larynx

5. Merlin

15. experience

6. cherub

16. disturbing

7. portion

17. clearance

8. farming

18. nervous

9. sparrow

19. furious

10. nervous

20. clairvoyant

In some dialects of English, notably Southern and Eastern American English, the central rhotic vowels /ɝ/ and /ɚ/ may undergo derhotacization (produced without r-coloring) and are pronounced as /ɜ/ and /ə/, respectively. The result is the production of /ɜ/ in words that normally call for /ɝ/, and the production of /ə/ in words that normally call for /ɚ/—“girl” /ɡɜl/ and “tiger” /taɪɡə/.Derhotacization of vowels will be discussed in more detail in the section devoted to regional dialects in Chapter9. Complete Assignment 4-3.

More onDiphthongs

The diphthongs /eɪ/ and /oʊ/ were discussed earlier as allophones of /e/ and /o/, respectively. In English, there are three additional diphthong phonemes that do not exist in a monophthongal form. That is, they do not vary in relation to phonetic

92 Vowels context. These three diphthongs are /aɪ/ as in “kite,” /aʊ/ as in “loud,” and /ɔɪ/ as in “void.” Note that the onglide in /a/ in /aɪ/ and /aʊ/ is different from the vowel /ɑ/ introduced earlier. The symbols may look similar, but they represent two different phonemes in the IPA chart: The symbol /ɑ/ is used to transcribe the low back vowel, whereas the symbol /a/ is used in the diphthongs /aɪ/ and /aʊ/. Since every IPA symbol represents a specific phoneme, you should avoid using /a/ and /ɑ/ interchangeably. There is considerable variation in the symbols used to transcribe these three diphthongs. This is due to the fact that the exact articulation of these phonemes varies by dialect and by phonetic context. Similar to /eɪ/ and /oʊ/, these diphthongs should be thought of as having two distinctive articulations. That is, there is a gliding of the tongue from the first articulatory position (the onglide) to the second position (the offglide); the starting and ending position varies from speaker to speaker. The one commonality among all of the diphthongs (including /eɪ/ and /oʊ/) is the fact that the tongue always glides from a lower to a higher position in the oral cavity (refer to Figure4.2). The symbols chosen for this text to represent the three diphthongs are the ones most often adopted by most phonetics texts. They also represent a fairly close approximation of the actual articulation of these sounds. Keep in mind that some people transcribe these diphthongs with a tie bar as in /a͜ɪ/, /ɔ͜ɪ/, and /a͜ʊ/. PronunciationGuide /aɪ/

as in “buy”

/baɪ/

/ɔɪ/

as in “boy”

/bɔɪ/

/aʊ/

as in “bough”

/baʊ/

SampleWords

/aɪ/

lye

ice

thyme

tie

fiber buy

light feisty

Allographs Grapheme

Example

Grapheme

Example

sigh

tried

i..e ai

ae y

write aisle

maestro my

uy ei

buy

height eye

aye

Discussion The tongue body begins in the low central or low back portion of the mouth (depending on dialect) in the production of the onglide /a/ and moves to the high front position for the offglide /ɪ/. The initial phoneme in this diphthong represents a vowel monophthong not commonly used by all speakers in the United States. It does exist in the speech patterns of individuals from Boston and other areas of the eastern United States in pronunciation of words such as “park” /pak/ or “car” /ka/. Some speakers in the East and South produce this diphthong as the monophthong /a/ as in the words “might” /mat/ and “ice” /as/.

Chapter Four 93

Exercise 4.15—THE DIPHTHONG /aɪ/ A. Contrast the diphthong /aɪ/ in the following minimal pairs. /aɪ/

/ɪ/

/eɪ/

kite

kit

Kate

height

hit

hate

sight

sit

sate

wind (verb)

wind (noun)

waned

lime

limb

lame

style

still

stale

tyke

tick

take

B. Circle the words that contain the /aɪ/ phoneme. power

spacious

machine

replaced

slice

delicious

Formica

traded

contrite

spider

maybe

piped

lever

Cairo

cider

supplied

rivalry

razor

piano

spigot

C. Circle the phonetic transcriptions that represent English words. /fɹaɪdeɪ/

/bɹaɪmɚ/

/taɪfɹaɪn/

/ɹəvaɪz/

/məbaɪ/

/naɪlɔn/

/pɹədaɪt/

/tɹaɪdɛnt/

/tɹaɪd/

/laɪɚ/

/haɪəst/

/stɹaɪpt/

D. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. /sɚpɹaɪz/

___________________

/klaɪmæks/

___________________

/kəlaɪd/

___________________

/pɹeɪlin/

___________________

/tɹeɪlɚ/

___________________

/baɪsɛps/

___________________

/pɹaɪmet/

___________________

/waɪɚd/

___________________

/vaɪɹəs/

___________________

/taɪɹed/

___________________

/deɪlaɪt/

___________________

/daɪmənd/

___________________

SampleWords

/ɔɪ/

toy

exploit

join

boisterous

Allographs Grapheme

Example

foil

soy

ahoy

foible

flamboyant coined

94 Vowels Discussion The tongue body begins in the low-mid back position of the mouth (for /ɔ/) and glides to a high front position (for /ɪ/). When initiating this diphthong, the lips are rounded. As the tongue glides upward in the oral cavity toward the offglide portion, the lips become unrounded. In the South, some speakers will produce this diphthong as the monophthong /ɔ/, as in “oil” /ɔl/ and “soil” /sɔl/.

Exercise 4.16—THE DIPHTHONG /ᴐɪ/ A. Contrast the diphthong /ɔɪ/ in the following minimal pairs. /ɔɪ/

/aɪ/

/eɪ/

Boyd

bide

bade

soy

sigh

say

coil

Kyle

kale

hoist

heist

haste

loin

line

lane

boys

buys

bays

poise

pies

pays

B. Circle the words that contain the /ɔɪ/ phoneme. repay

hoisted

voiceless

reward

loiter

crowded

fiery

tiled

straight

feisty

coy

cloying

crime

broiler

stoic

destroy

goiter

razor

avoid

supplied

C. Circle the phonetic transcriptions that represent English words. /kwaɪət/

/spɹɔɪdɪn/

/dɔɪɚz/

/plɔɪdənt/

/mɜ˞ dɚ/

/blaɪndlɪ/

/ənstɹaɪt/

/taɪpsɛt/

/pɔɪzən/

/vɔɪdəd/

/ɹikɔɪld/

/taɪwɑn/

D. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. /ɔɪlɪ/

_____________________

/ændɹɔɪd/

_____________________

/maɪstɹoʊ/

_____________________

/laɪvlɪ/

_____________________

/taɪfɔɪd/

_____________________

/ɪnvɔɪs/

_____________________

/pɑɹbɔɪl/

_____________________

/ɔɪstɚ/

_____________________

/haɪndsaɪt/

_____________________

/haɪɔɪd/

_____________________

/baɪaʊt/

_____________________

/deɪlaɪt/

_____________________

SampleWords

/aʊ/

loud

sour

around

powder

clown

flower

trousers roused

Chapter Four 95

Allographs Grapheme

Example

cow

house

Discussion The tongue begins in the low back position of the mouth for the onglide /a/ and glides upward to the high back position for the production of the offglide /ʊ/. When initiating this diphthong, the lips are unrounded. As the glide progresses toward the offglide, the lips become rounded.

Exercise 4.17—THE DIPHTHONG /aʊ/ A. Contrast the diphthong /aʊ/ in the following minimal pairs. /aʊ/

/oʊ/

/aɪ/

/ɔɪ/

bough

bow

buy

boy

sow

sew

sigh

soy

cowl

coal

Kyle

coil

row (quarrel)

row

rye

Roy

towel

toll

tile

toil

fowls

foals

files

foils

B. Circle the words that contain the /aʊ/ phoneme. toilet

dowdy

frown

bounty

mousy

allowed

loaded

probate

beauty

explode

soils

proud

astound

toil

chowder

crowbar

hello

toad

chastise

scrolled

C. Circle the phonetic transcriptions that represent English words. /taɪɚd/

/laʊzɪ/

/aɪvɹɪ/

/hoʊmbɔɪ/

/ɹɪbaʊ/

/blaʊkɚ/

/ɹɔɪdɪ/

/kaʊtaʊ/

/waʊntɪd/

/ɹoʊɡbɪ/

/paʊzɚ/

/aʊɚlɪ/

D. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. /bɔɪfɹɛnd/

_____________________

/ɹoʊboʊt/

_____________________

/klɑndaɪk/

_____________________

/pispaɪp/

_____________________

/daʊntaʊn/

_____________________

/sɚaʊnd/

_____________________

/sloʊɚ/

_____________________

/doʊnʌt/

_____________________

/faʊndəd/

_____________________

/klaɪənt/

_____________________

/vaɪzɚ/

_____________________

/bɹaʊzɚ/

_____________________

Complete Assignment 4-4.

96 Vowels

ChapterSummary ■

All vowels in English can be classified along four dimensions. Tongue height refers to how high or low the tongue is when producing a vowel; tongue advancement relates to how far forward or backward the tongue is during vowel production; lip rounding refers to whether the lips are rounded or unrounded during production of a particular vowel; and the tense/ lax dimension relates to whether a particular vowel can or cannot end a stressed open syllable. Tense vowels can end a stressed open syllable, and lax vowels cannot.

■

There is a unique IPA symbol for each of the English vowels and diphthongs that are used when transcribing speech. These include: front vowels: /i, ɪ, e, ɛ, æ/ back vowelsː /u, ʊ, o, ɔ, ɑ/ central vowelsː /ə, ʌ, ɚ, ɜ˞ / r-colored vowelsː /ɪr, ɛr, ʊr, ɔr, ɑr/ diphthongs: /aɪ, ɔɪ, aʊ, eɪ, oʊ/

ReviewExercises A. Describe each of the following vowels by providing their tongue height, tongue advancement, lip rounding, and tense/lax characteristics. Height

Advancement

Rounded

Tense/ Lax

____________ high

________________ front

____________ no

____________ tense

ɜ˞

____________

________________

____________

ʊ ə

u ɛ

ɚ ʌ e ɪ

ɑ ɔ

____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________

B. For the following items, fill in the blank with the appropriate vowels from the description given. Then write the word in English orthography. Example: /mit/

1. /b_____d/

2. /s_____n/

3. /sl_____pt/

4. /s_____p/

5. /k_____rd/

6. /f_____t/

7. /f_____z/

high, front, tense vowel

meat ________________

low-mid, back-central

________________

low, front

low-mid, front

high, back, tense

low-mid, back

high, back, lax

high, front, lax

________________

Chapter Four 97

8. /p_____rk/

low, back

________________

10. /kr_____z/

high-mid, back

________________

9. /w_____d/

mid-central, tense

________________

C. For each of the following two-syllable words, indicate whether each vowel is tense (T) or lax (L). Example: lasso

________________ L ________________ T

2. bashful

________________

1. Sunday 3. laundry

4. confused 5. fender

________________

6. concern

________________

8. obese

________________

________________ ________________

7. regroup

________________

9. layette

________________

10. abrupt

________________

________________ ________________ ________________

D. For the following two-syllable words, indicate whether each vowel is rounded (R) or unrounded (U). Example: lasso

________________ R U ________________

2. curfew

________________

1. foolish

3. decade 4. collate

5. football

________________

6. Pluto

________________

8. pursuit

________________

________________ ________________

7. person

________________

9. rugby

________________

10. lower

________________

________________ ________________ ________________

E. Transcription Practice—Front Vowels PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 4.1

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

Use the correct IPA symbol(s) (i, ɪ, e, eɪ, ɛ, æ) for each of the front vowels in the following words.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

straight bees bread can filled bring lapse sang fair mean

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

empty rabies instead stampede vacate pleasing transit beer can implant barely

F. Transcription Practice—Back Vowels PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 4.2

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

Use the correct IPA symbol(s) (u, ʊ, o, oʊ, ɔ, ɑ) for each of the back vowels in the following words.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

moat push laud locks crude chose raw

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

lure sword card awful Clorox loco oboe

98 Vowels 15. taco 16. monarch 17. popcorn

18. truthful 19. costume 20. crouton

G. Transcription Practice—Central Vowels Use the correct IPA symbol(s) (ə, ʌ, ɚ, ɜ˞ ) for each of the central vowels in the following words.

PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 4.3

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

certain rusted perturb assert upper merger clutter verbal traverse learner

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

purpose sudden luster purchase sherbet mother converge herder worded mustard

H. Diphthong Practice Some of the following words have the wrong diphthong/vowel symbol in their transcriptions. If there is an error, write the correct symbol in the blank.

1. word

/wɜ˞ d/

___________________

16. maestro

/maɪstɹoʊ/

___________________

3. carp

/kɜ˞ p/

___________________

18. pouring

/pɔɹɪŋ/

___________________

20. appear

___________________

22. parrot

___________________

24. oyster

___________________

26. silence

___________________

28. avoid

___________________

30. license

2. lard 4. war

5. mere 6. wide 7. curd 8. stay

9. pray

10. crow 11. coin

12. pride 13. firm 14. tour 15. fair

/lɔɹd/

/wɑɹ/ /mɪɹ/

/weɪd/ /kʊɹd/ /steɪ/

/pɹaɪ/

/kɹaʊ/ /kɔɪn/

/pɹaɪd/ /fɪɹm/ /tʊɹ/ /fɛɹ/

___________________

17. flour

___________________

19. liar

___________________

21. tighter

___________________

23. corner

___________________

25. squarely

___________________

27. smarter

___________________

29. prowess

/floʊɚ/ /laɪɚ/

/əpɛɹ/

/taɪtɜ˞ / /pɜ˞ ət/

/kɔɹnɚ/ /ɔɪstɛɹ/

/skwɛɹlɪ/ /sɪləns/

/smɔɹtɚ/ /əvaɪd/

/pɹoəs/

/leɪsəns/

I. Using /ɜ˞ / and the r-colored vowels listed below, create as many meaningful English words as possible for each of the following items. /ɪɹ, ʊɹ, ɔɹ, ɑɹ, ɛɹ, ɜ˞ /

Example: b

beer, boor, bore, bar, bear, burr _________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. r

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1. p

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Chapter Four 99

3. d

4. w

5. k

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

J. Using the vowels listed below, create as many meaningful English words as possible for each of the following items. /i, ɪ, eɪ, ɛ, æ, u, ʊ, oʊ, ɔ, ɑ, ɜ˞ , ʌ/

Example: 1. 2.

3. l

4. sk 5. st 6. b 7. t

8. s 9. r 10. r

11. sp 12. w

ease, is, as, ooze, owes, awes, Oz __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

n d

rd nt t t

bd t

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

K. Write each of the following transcribed words in English orthography. 1. /kʌstəmz/

__________________________

21. /wʌndɚfʊl/

__________________________

3. /twɔɹd/

__________________________

23. /ɹimɔɹsfʊl/

__________________________

25. /læksətɪv/

__________________________

27. /kɑləndɚ/

2. /əbaʊnd/ 4. /slɛndɚ/ 5. /kɛɹfɹi/

6. /veɪkənt/ 7. /bʌntəd/ 8. /klaʊdɪ/

9. /steɪplɚ/

10. /kəntɔɹt/ 11. /saɪɹənz/

12. /klɔɪstɚd/ 13. /ohaɪoʊ/

14. /ɹeɪdɪoʊ/

15. /kɚoʊsɪv/

16. /plətɑnək/ 17. /ɹɛzənet/ 18. /daɪɡɹɛs/

19. /saɪfənd/

20. /ɑɹkənsɔ/

__________________________

22. /kæləndɚ/

__________________________

24. /stupɛndəs/

__________________________

26. /sɪnsɪɹlɪ/

__________________________

28. /ɹezənɛts/

__________________________ __________________________

29. /bɛɹəton/

30. /disɛmbɚ/

__________________________

31. /mɛksɪkoʊ/

__________________________

33. /ɔɹdɚlɪ/

32. /kwæɡmaɪɚ/ 34. /hɜ˞ bəsaɪd/ 35. /ɹəpʌlsɪv/ 36. /kɛɹəktɚ/

37. /sæsəfɹæs/ 38. /zaɪləfon/

39. /kwɔɹtɚbæk/ 40. /ɛmbɛɹəst/

100 Vowels L. Transcription Practice—Front, Back, and Central Vowels PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 4.4

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

Use the correct IPA symbol(s) for each of the vowels in the following words.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

epic faster wonder octet woolen depot soldier itchy worship palace barely nation genius cupboard cartoon nasty fearless number sanction ocean

21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

inkling Fairbanks car pool machine Athens autumn rebus torment utter bushel corner quandary aster phone booth turban key case boarder blaring strangle awesome

16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

gender China jaundiced turquoise invoice financed merchant proclaim probate July martian future prospect product tofu

M. Transcribe the vowels in the following words. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 4.5

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

broiler mousetrap boardwalk closure nylons steroid starstruck regime bashful perjure spearmint lightbulb destroy banquet eyesore

Chapter Four 101

StudyQuestions 1. What is the vowel quadrilateral? What is its importance in the study of phonetics? 2. Which vowels in English are tense? Which ones are lax? How does your understanding of syllables help in understanding the use of tense and lax vowels in English? 3. How are vowels produced in the vocal tract? 4. Which vowels in English are rounded? Which ones are unrounded? 5. What is a point vowel? List the English point vowels. 6. Why isn’t the final sound in the word “lucky” transcribed with /i/? 7. Define the terms onglide and offglide. 8. Which vowels in English are affected by syllable stress? 9. What is the difference between a monophthong and a diphthong? 10. What is the relationship between tongue movement and pharyngeal shape during vowel production? 11. What is “rhotacization”? Which vowels in English may become rhotacized?

OnlineResources Search online for Sounds of Speech Iowa. This site provides facial view videos, audio samples, and animated diagrams of the articulators for all English vowels. Spanish and German modules also are available. The program is available for download from the App Store and Google Play for use on portable devices. Search online for the World Atlas of Language Structures Online. On the homepage of the website, select “Chapters” in the horizontal bar at the top of the page. In the chapter list, select Chapter2, “Vowel Quality Inventories.” This chapter by Ian Maddieson provides information on vowel production and vowel inventories in over 500 of the world’s languages.

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Chapter Four 103

Assignment 4-1 Name FrontVowels PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 4.6

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

Transcribe the front vowels in the following words.

1. cramp

21. Band-Aid

2. stared

22. headband

3. each

23. keychain

4. spleen

24. cheery

5. skim

25. barely

6. bless

26. pin head

7. mist

27. revamp

8. trapped

28. cherry

9. fears

29. invest

10. axe

30. chin strap

11. impasse

31. welfare

12. hearsay

32. immense

13. eclipse

33. farewell

14. cheesecake

34. baby

15. skinflint

35. filly

16. banish

36. bareback

17. Sinbad

37. staircase

18. herring

38. bereft

19. reindeer

39. playpen

20. kinship

40. eggplant

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Chapter Four 105

Assignment 4-2 Name Front and BackVowels PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 4.7

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

Transcribe the front and back vowels in the following words.

1. feud

21. arrow

2. bull

22. borax

3. spore

23. faux pas

4. rocks

24. forceps

5. strew

25. footstool

6. rook

26. boorish

7. lost

27. Fargo

8. bog

28. ballroom

9. oats

29. romance

10. crone

30. offshoot

11. carpool

31. meatballs

12. wrongful

32. jaw bone

13. pseudo

33. awning

14. oxbow

34. inkblot

15. doorknob

35. romaine

16. careful

36. armhole

17. bookshelf

37. hardware

18. bootleg

38. previewed

19. bamboo

39. artful

20. barnyard

40. airborne

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Chapter Four 107

Assignment 4-3 Name Front, Back, and CentralVowels PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 4.8

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

Transcribe the front, back, and central vowels in the following words. 1. bedbug

26. govern

2. revered

27. pewter

3. yogurt

28. bonus

4. yuppie

29. arrest

5. virtue

30. pungent

6. uproar

31. Thursday

7. tortoise

32. parcel

8. performed

33. goulash

9. tether

34. cupcake

10. terror

35. gleeful

11. suburb

36. morale

12. soldier

37. golfer

13. quasar

38. footage

14. circus

39. exhaust

15. gumdrop

40. drama

16. ogre

41. conceit

17. gorgeous

42. teardrop

18. mirthful

43. slogan

19. luggage

44. secrete

20. frontier

45. proclaim

21. placard

46. dormant

22. opposed

47. bunker

23. hurrah

48. acute

24. ferment

49. hundred

25. drunkard

50. cedar

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Chapter Four 109

Assignment 4-4 Name Vowel/DiphthongReview PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 4.9

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

Transcribe all of the vowels and diphthongs in the following words. 1. corker

26. bauxite

2. irate

27. crackdown

3. absurd

28. perturb

4. bagpipe

29. highbrow

5. Boise

30. playwear

6. clubhouse

31. poem

7. bullfrog

32. ion

8. conjoin

33. proclaim

9. commute

34. beehive

10. grotto

35. procure

11. errand

36. import

12. fervor

37. punster

13. birthright

38. carbide

14. jousting

39. toystore

15. deltoid

40. outlaw

16. discount

41. unfair

17. honor

42. employed

18. inform

43. icebox

19. mastoid

44. x-ray

20. oblique

45. furtive

21. outbreak

46. eyesore

22. goiter

47. blowtorch

23. bloodshot

48. ozone

24. parsnip

49. suburb

25. downward

50. voiceless

Chapter 5

Consonants LearningObjectives After reading this chapter, you will be able to: 5.1 Discuss the basic differences between consonants and vowels. 5.2 Describe the production of all English consonants in terms of

manner, place, and voicing.

5.3 Transcribe all of the English consonants in spoken utterances, using

the appropriate IPA symbols.

What is a consonant? Although this seems like a simple question, unfortunately the answer is not so simple. The term consonant can be defined in several ways. It is possible to define consonants in terms of the letters used to represent them or by the way they are formed by the articulators. Consonants also can be defined in terms of their particular role in the structure of syllables, or by their acoustic and physical properties. To best answer the question What is a consonant?, we need to consider all of these issues. We already know that there are many more consonant letters in the Roman alphabet than vowels. Likewise, there are more consonant than vowel phonemes. In Chapter4, we learned that there are approximately 14 vowel phonemes in American English plus 5 diphthongs. In this chapter, 24 consonant phonemes will be introduced. English is considered to have an average number of consonant phonemes when compared to other languages throughout the world. Consonant inventories in other languages range from as few as 6 consonants to as many as 122! An average-sized consonant inventory is characteristic of most spoken languages throughout the world (Maddieson, 2013a). As you are aware, the IPA symbols for the consonants are well represented by the letters of the Roman alphabet. There are only a few new symbols to learn in order to transcribe English consonants. In this respect, consonant transcription is easier to learn than vowel transcription. In addition to the 24 consonant phonemes, some of the more common allophonic variations of some of the consonants will be introduced.

Consonants VersusVowels

Learning Objective 5.1 Discuss the basic differences between consonants and vowels.

In terms of production, vowels and consonants vary considerably. Unlike vowels, consonants are not produced solely by changes in tongue and lip positioning. Consonants are produced by vocal tract constrictions that modify the breath stream coming from the larynx. Consonant production generally involves the coming together of two articulators to modify the flow of air as it passes through the oral and/or nasal cavities. The tongue, the primary articulator in production of consonants, makes contact with other articulators to form most of the English consonants. In addition, there are several consonants that do not utilize the tongue in their production, for example, /h/, /b/, and /f/.

Chapter Five 111

Another way in which vowels and consonants vary is in relation to where the sound generator (or sound source) is located during their production. The sound source for all of the vowels is at the level of the vocal folds. Thus, for vowel production, the breath stream coming from the larynx is voiced (vocal folds vibrating), creating resonance throughout the entire vocal tract. As you recall, changes in lip and tongue position cause alterations in the resonant frequencies of the vocal tract, giving each vowel its characteristic timbre. Similar to the vowels, the sonorant consonants, or simply sonorants, are produced with resonance occurring throughout the entire vocal tract. This is why the sonorants are also sometimes referred to as resonant consonants. The sonorant consonants include the nasals, liquids, and glides, all of which are voiced. The sonorants are produced with little constriction in the vocal tract and with little turbulence in the airstream as it passes through the oral cavity. Refer to Table5.1 for a classification of all the English consonants.

TABLE 5.1 The Classification of English ConsonantPhonemes. Bilabial

Obstruents

Stops (Plosives) Fricatives

Affricates

Sonorants Nasals

Glides

Approximants Liquids

Labiodental vl

Interdental vl

Alveolar vl

Postalveolar vl

tʃ

Palatal v

Glottal

dʒ

Velar

vl = voiceless; v = voiced

The sound source for several consonants, however, is not in the larynx. For some consonants, the primary sound source is the noise (or turbulence) created at the point of constriction in the oral cavity, formed by the articulators, as air flows through the supralaryngeal system. Consonants produced in this manner are called obstruent consonants (because the airflow is obstructed during their articulation). Obstruents are sometimes referred to as nonresonant consonants. Obstruents include the stop, fricative, and affricate consonants. In the production of obstruents, resonance does not occur throughout the entire vocal tract, as it does for the vowels and sonorants. Instead, resonance occurs primarily in the portion of the vocal tract anterior to the constriction formed by the articulators. For voiceless obstruent sounds, such as /s, f, t, and k/, the sound source is solely at the point of constriction in the vocal tract. However, for voiced obstruents, such as /z, v, d, and ɡ/, the vibrating vocal folds do provide a second sound source, creating a modulation of the breath stream coming from the lungs. Whereas vowels can stand alone and create a meaningful utterance (“oh,” “a,” and “I”), consonants do not have the ability to stand alone. Consonants are generally found at the beginning and/or the end of syllables. As such, they are often classified as to their position in relation to the vowel in each syllable. Consonants that occur before a vowel in any syllable are referred to as prevocalic, and those that occur after a vowel are referred to as postvocalic. Consonants located between two vowels are termed intervocalic. Refer to Table5.2 for some examples of prevocalic, postvocalic, and intervocalic consonants.

112 Consonants

TABLE 5.2 Examples of Prevocalic, Postvocalic, and Intervocalic Consonants (consonant graphemes and IPA symbols areunderlined). Prevocalic

Postvocalic

Intervocalic

tee

/ti/

eat

/it/

easy

/izɪ/

cow

/kaʊ/

group

/ɡɹup/

okay

/okeɪ/

hoe see

ray

/hoʊ/ /si/

/ɹeɪ/

move ran

eyes

/muv/

anew

/ɹæn/

array

/aɪz/

upper

/ənu/

/əɹeɪ/

/ʌpɚ/

PRELIMINARY EXERCISE 5A—PREVOCALIC, INTERVOCALIC, AND POSTVOCALICCONSONANTS Match the appropriate term to each of the words below to indicate whether the underlined IPA symbol is in the prevocalic, intervocalic, or postvocalic position. a. prevocalic 1. seem

b. intervocalic

c. postvocalic

/sim/

6. oily

/ɔɪlɪ/

2. trade

/tɹeɪd/

7. hotdog

/hɑtdɑɡ/

3. away

/əweɪ/

8. hasten

/heɪsən/

4. cruise

/kɹuz/

9. open

/oʊpən/

5. oaf

/oʊf/

10. football /fʊtbɑl/

As you learned in Chapter2, vowels generally serve as the center or nucleus of a syllable. Vowels are considered to be the nucleus of a syllable because they are of greater intensity than consonants and are, therefore, the prominent aspect of a syllable. Because vowels can form the nucleus of a syllable, they are said to be syllabic. We will learn later that, in some instances, a few consonants may become syllabic in some phonetic contexts. Consequently, they have the special ability to become the nucleus of a syllable as well.

Production of English Consonants: Manner, Place, andVoicing

Learning Objective 5.2 Describe the production of all English consonants in terms of manner, place, and voicing.

One last way consonants and vowels differ is the manner in which consonant articulation is classified. Vowels are usually classified in terms of lip and tongue position. Consonants, on the other hand, are classified according to three different phonemic dimensions: manner of production, place of articulation, and voicing. Manner of production refers to the way in which the airstream is modified as it passes through the vocal tract. For instance, stops are produced when the articulators completely impede the airstream passing through the vocal tract. Fricatives, on the other hand, are produced by forcing air through a narrow channel formed by the articulators in the oral cavity. Stop and fricative consonants belong to separate manners of production. In addition to stops and fricatives, the other English manners of production include affricates, nasals, glides, and liquids. Examine Table5.1 in order to better understand the distribution of the English consonants among the various manners of production.

Chapter Five 113

PRELIMINARY EXERCISE 5B—MANNER OFPRODUCTION Referring to Table5.1, match each of the following consonants to their manner of production. 1. /ɹ/

a. stop

2. /d/

b. fricative

3. /w/

c. affricate

4. /f/

d. nasal

5. /n/

e. glide

6. /tʃ/

f. liquid

To define place of articulation, we must answer this question: Where in the vocal tract is the constriction located during the production of a particular consonant? In other words, to determine place of articulation, we need to know which speech articulators are active in production of that consonant. From Chapter3, you should be familiar with the various adjectives that refer to specific articulators located in the vocal tract. It is these adjectives that are used to refer to place of articulation. For example, if both lips are used to produce a phoneme, the place of production is bilabial. Likewise, if a phoneme is created by placing the tongue against the alveolar ridge, the place of articulation is considered to be lingua-alveolar or simply alveolar. (It is redundant to say lingua-alveolar because it is understood that the primary articulator is the tongue.) Table5.3 reviews the various places of articulation most common to spoken English.

TABLE 5.3 Most Common Places of Articulation inEnglish. Place of Articulation

Articulators Involved

bilabial

upper and lower lips

dental

tongue apex (or blade) and teeth

labiodental alveolar

postalveolar palatal velar

glottal

lingual

lower lip and upper central incisors tongue apex (or blade) and alveolar ridge

front of tongue and back of alveolar ridge blade of tongue and hard palate back of tongue and velum vocal folds tongue

The last dimension used in classifying consonants is voicing. Voicing refers to whether the vocal folds are vibrating during the production of a particular consonant. Several phonemes in English share the same manner of production and place of articulation yet differ only in the voicing dimension (/s/ and /z/, for example). Phonemes that differ only in voicing are called cognates. Other examples of voiceless/voiced cognates include /k/ and /ɡ/, /f/ and /v/, and /p/ and /b/. Word pairs differing only in the voicing of one phoneme are minimal pairs—“bit”/“pit” and “tuck”/“duck.”

114 Consonants

PRELIMINARY EXERCISE 5C—VOICED/VOICELESSCOGNATES Place an “X” by each word pair having initial consonants that are voiced/voiceless cognates. You may need to refer to Table5.1 for assistance. 1. me, we

6. shoot, suit

2. seal, zeal

7. flame, blame

3. plan, clan

8. dram, tram

4. lice, rice

9. yes, chess

5. grain, crane

10. vendor, fender

Transcription of the EnglishConsonants Learning Objective 5.3 Transcribe all of the English consonants in spoken utterances, using the appropriate IPA symbols.

In the following sections, the consonants of English will be introduced using the following format: 1. Pronunciation Guide for each consonant within each manner class, along with a detailed explanation of each manner. 2. Phonetic Symbol Name of each phoneme (Pullum & Ladusaw, 1996). 3. Description of each consonant on three dimensions: voicing, place of articulation, and manner. Voiced/voiceless cognates will be introduced together. 4. Sample Words and Minimal Pairs containing the phoneme(s) being discussed. 5. Allographs commonly used to represent the phoneme in spelling. 6. Discussion involving the production of each consonant. 7. Practice Exercises for the entire manner class—exercises will not be given for each separate phoneme, as with the vowels.

The Stop Consonants(Plosives) PronunciationGuide /p/ /t/ /k/

as in “pan” as in “tune” as in “could”

/pæn/ /tun/ /kʊd/

/b/ /d/ /ɡ/

as in “ban” as in “dune” as in “good”

/bæn/ /dun/ /ɡʊd/

Stops, or plosives, are produced by completely obstructing the airstream once it enters the oral cavity. This is why stops are part of the class of consonants termed obstruents. The obstruction in the vocal tract is more occluding for this manner of articulation than for any of the others. Stop articulation is marked not only by a closure in the oral cavity but also by a closure of the velopharyngeal port. That is, the velum is raised to prevent the breath stream from entering the nasal cavity. The English stop consonants are produced by forming a closure in the oral cavity at one of three places of articulation: bilabial (both lips coming together), alveolar (the tip or blade of the tongue contacting the alveolar ridge), or velar (the back of the tongue contacting the velum). The articulatory process in stop consonant production is very rapid. In fact, of all the phonemes in English, stops are among the shortest in duration. Although it is possible to prolong the production of a vowel (iiiiiiiiii), it is not possible to prolong the production of a stop consonant.

Chapter Five 115

During the period of closure, intraoral pressure (air pressure within the oral cavity) increases due to the fact that the impeded airstream cannot escape the oral cavity. Once the constriction is released, the intraoral air pressure is relieved, resulting in the expulsion of an audible noise burst from the oral cavity (hence the name plosive). The burst of air is referred to as noise, since the airflow becomes turbulent when the stop is released. One last thing to consider relating to the production of plosives is their sound source. Stops may have one or two sound sources, depending on whether they are voiced or not. In English, there are three voiceless stops (/p, t, k/) and three voiced stops (/b, d, ɡ/). The primary sound source for voiceless stop consonants is considered to be at the point of constriction in the vocal tract, formed by the articulators. More specifically, the source of sound is the turbulent airflow generated when the intraoral pressure is released. For this reason, the sound source for voiceless stops is considered to be a noise source. For voiced stops, the vocal folds vibrate in conjunction with the release of the stop in the oral cavity. Therefore, voiced stops have two separate sound sources: (1) the noise source produced at the constriction in the vocal tract and (2) the vocal tone produced by the vibrating vocal folds. Each stop consonant has a characteristic vocal tract shape due to the position of the articulators that form the stop constriction. Therefore, there is a separate, characteristic vocal tract resonance for the labial, alveolar, and velar places of production. Vocal fold vibration causes modifications in the vocal tract resonance during production of the voiced stops. The differences in the resonance of the larynx, pharynx, and oral cavity during production of the various stop consonants provide listeners the auditory cues necessary to distinguish their place of articulation.

/p/ /b/

Lowercase p Lowercase b Description /p/ voiceless, bilabial stop /b/ voiced, bilabial stop SampleWords /p/

/b/

appear

rube

played

breeze

spite

stubborn

leapt

rubbed

ripped

club

stripe

abrade

MinimalPairs /p/

/b/

/p/

/b/

punt

bunt

rip

rib

pet

patch prim

packed plead

bet

batch brim

backed bleed

ape rope lap

staple

ample

Abe robe lab

stable

amble

116 Consonants Allographs

/p/

/b/

Grapheme

Example

Grapheme

Example

apple

blubber

pig

bear

Discussion The airstream is impeded as both lips are brought together during production of the stops /p/ and /b/. Therefore, these two phonemes are classified as bilabial (refer to Figure5.1). The jaws are in an almost closed position so that the lips can come together. The velopharyngeal port remains closed so that air does not flow into the nasal cavity. Upon release, the burst of air for /p/ is more powerful than for /b/ because the amount of intraoral pressure is greater for voiceless phonemes. During production of /p/ or /b/, the tongue’s position is determined by the following vowel. The use of the /p/ and /b/ phonemes in transcription is fairly straightforward (refer to the sample words just listed).

Figure 5.1 Bilabialarticulation.

/t/ /d/

Lowercase t Lowercase d Description /t/ voiceless, alveolar stop /d/ voiced, alveolar stop SampleWords /t/

/d/

stick

address

taste attack

dunce

pedestal

Chapter Five

117

Sample Words (Cont.) sate

door

walked

mailed

tempest MinimalPairs

edict

/t/

/d/

/t/

/d/

trot

trod

talk touch troll

taffy

tram

dock

pat

Dutch

pad

state

droll

stayed (staid)

straight

daffy

strayed

trait

dram

trade

post

posed

Allographs /t/

/d/

Grapheme

Example

Grapheme

Example

looked

waded

toe

doe

Discussion To produce the alveolar stops /t/ and /d/, the apex, or blade, of the tongue makes contact with the alveolar ridge, impeding oral airflow (refer to Figure5.2). The sides of the tongue are placed against the upper molars so that air does not escape from the sides of the tongue. In essence, a small airtight cavity is formed by the tongue and teeth so that an increase in intraoral pressure may occur.

Figure 5.2 Alveolararticulation.

118 Consonants The air burst associated with the release of the voiceless /t/ is greater than for the voiced /d/, due to greater intraoral pressure for the voiceless cognate. In certain phonetic contexts, the velopharyngeal port may open during release of /d/, allowing release of air through the nasal cavity instead of through the oral cavity. In the words “ridden” and “sudden,” for instance, the tongue may remain in contact with the alveolar ridge during the release of the consonant; the stop would then be released through the nasal cavity instead of through the oral cavity. This maneuver is accomplished by lowering the velum. The release of air through the nasal cavity is called nasal plosion for obvious reasons. Nasal plosion can be indicated in narrow transcription by using a raised “n” following the phoneme in question (e.g.,“sudden” [sʌdnn̩]). One other consideration regarding /t/ and /d/ is their use in transcribing the morpheme “-ed,” used to represent the past tense ending in words. Notice that the words “bagged” /bæɡd/ and “beeped” /bipt/ each end with a different phoneme. In the first case “ed” is represented by /d/, and in the second case with /t/. Now examine the following words and see if you can determine a pattern as to the use of /t/ and /d/ in representing the morpheme “-ed.” Example

Final Phoneme

Example

Final Phoneme

teamed

/d/

hiked

/t/

crowed

/d/

hogged

taped

/d/

raised

/t/

lacked

/d/

/t/

raced

/t/

Perhaps you noticed that if the phoneme preceding the “-ed” morpheme is voiced, the final phoneme also will be voiced, that is, /d/. Conversely, if the phoneme preceding “-ed” is voiceless, then the voiceless /t/ will represent the morpheme “-ed.” Reexamine the previous words to make sure you understand this concept. Allophones of /t/ and /d/ Alveolar Tap

Glottal Stop

Sample Words

/ɾ/

whittle Toto

battle cutie

/ʔ/

coddle

ladder/latter

button fatten

mountain Latin

hat

atlas

AlveolarTap An allophone of /t/ and /d/ often occurs in casual speech in words like “latter”/“ladder” and “Plato”/“play dough.” Say these word pairs aloud to yourself, and you will not see a difference in their production. For example, the pronunciation of the word “latter” is not truly a /t/, as in the pronunciation /lætɚ/, nor is it truly a /d/, as in /lædɚ/; the pronunciation is somewhere between the two. In this context, the (alveolar) tap /ɾ/ is the allophone used to represent the combination of /t/ and /d/ as in /læɾɚ/ or /pleɪɾoʊ/. Tap articulation involves a very rapid movement of the tongue tip against the alveolar ridge, creating a very brief stop consonant. The motion associated with a tapped stop consonant is more rapid than the “traditional” stop articulation of /t/ or /d/. The tap generally occurs in words with an intervocalic “t” or “d” digraph, in which the first syllable receives stress. Some examples include: better

madder

stutter

huddle

matted coddle

battle

riddle

The tap also is used in transcription when an intervocalic /t/ closes a stressed syllable. Examine the following words by saying them aloud: fated

flirted

static

data

Chapter Five 119

The tap could also appear in an intervocalic position where neither the preceding nor the following vowel receives primary stress: community

divinity

authenticity

sensitivity

Notice that the /t/ becomes partially voiced, due to the voiced environment provided by the vowels preceding and following the consonant. Use of the tap in this instance is more accurate in transcription than using /t/ or /d/. GlottalStop Another allophone of /t/, the glottal stop /ʔ/, appears quite often in American English. It generally occurs in syllable-final position. This stop is most readily noted in British English in the phrase “Li’l bi’ of tea” (Little bit of tea /lɪʔl ̩ bɪʔ əv ti/). The vocal folds are the articulators that both impede and release the flow of air in the production of this speech sound. Because the vocal folds do not vibrate during the production of the glottal stop, it is considered to be voiceless. In American English, the glottal stop is found in some speakers’ productions of words such as “kitten,” “mountain,” and “Dayton,” where /t/ or /nt/ is followed by the /n/ phoneme. In saying these words, the /t/ is not released through the oral cavity. Instead, the release occurs at the level of the vocal folds. The reason for this is the tongue tip stays in place for both the /t/ and the following /n/ phonemes because they share the same (alveolar) place of articulation. Phonemes that share the same place of articulation are said to be homorganic. The transcription of the words “kitten,” “mountain,” and “Dayton” would be /kɪʔn̩/, /maʊnʔn̩/, and /deɪʔn̩/, respectively. Similar to the tap, the glottal stop tends to appear where an intervocalic /t/ follows a stressed syllable, as in “Dayton” /deɪʔn̩/ (where the first syllable receives stress) but not in “baton” /bətɑn/ (where the second syllable receives stress). In contrast to the tap, the glottal stop is typically followed by an /n/ (as in “kitten” and “button”), but not so for the tap (as in “kitty” and “butter”). Notice the use of the symbol /n̩/ in the transcription of the words /kɪʔn̩/, /maʊnʔn̩/, and /deɪʔn̩/ above. The /n̩/ represents an entire syllable, that is, both the consonant and the vowel, because there is no fully articulated vowel in these words. In this context, /n̩/ has become a syllabic consonant. (Remember that vowels are considered to be syllabic because they are the nucleus of a syllable.) The syllabic marking indicates that /n̩/ has become the nucleus of the syllable and therefore also represents the vowel in the syllable. We have seen a syllabic nasal in our earlier discussion of nasal plosion (e.g.,“sudden” /sʌdnn̩/). Syllabic consonants (or simply syllabics) result most often when adjacent homorganic consonants occur in either the same word or in separate words in conversational speech. Syllabics also can be found in conversational speech, as in “cat ’n dog” /kæʔn̩dɑg/ and “sittin’” /sɪʔn̩/ (note the use of the glottal stop here). We will return to the topic of syllabics in the sections focusing on nasals and liquids later in the chapter. The glottal stop also occurs between vowels within individual words such as “Hawaii” /həwaɪʔɪ/, and between vowels in adjacent words, as in “she eats” /ʃiʔits/ and “Hi Ilene” /haɪʔaɪlin/. Depending on dialect, some speakers replace syllable-final /t/ with a glottal stop. When this occurs, it almost sounds as though the speaker has deleted the /t/. Examples include “hat” /hæʔ/, “litmus” /lɪʔməs/, “Atlanta” /æʔlænə/, and “catnip” /kæʔnɪp/.

/k/ /ɡ/

Lowercase k Lowercase ɡ

Description /k/ voiceless, velar stop /ɡ/ voiced, velar stop SampleWords /k/

/ɡ/

wreck

rugged

cotton

gold

120 Consonants Sample Words (Cont.) opaque queue squirts

Gandhi lager aggressive

MinimalPairs /k/ crow cane cut cram kill kale

/ɡ/ grow gain gut gram gill gale

/k/ luck back broke shack pluck lacked

/ɡ/ lug bag brogue shag plug lagged

Allographs /k/ Grapheme k ck c cc ch cq cu qu

/ɡ/ Example like rock cat occult chord acquit biscuit liquor

Grapheme g gg gh gu

Example gone leggings ghost guard

Discussion The constriction in the oral cavity for production of /k/ and /ɡ/ is considered to be velar because the stop is formed between the back of the tongue and the anterior portion of the velum (refer to Figure5.3). As you would expect, there is greater intraoral pressure for the voiceless /k/ than for the voiced /ɡ/. The release for both /k/and /ɡ/ is through the oral cavity. It is interesting to note

Figure 5.3 Velararticulation.

Chapter Five 121

the many allographs of the phoneme /k/. Of all the stop consonants, /k/ has the most variant spellings. In some phonetic contexts, the back of the tongue may move slightly forward to articulate with the posterior portion of the palate during production of /k/ or /ɡ/. To demonstrate, let us compare the production of the phoneme /k/ in two different phonetic contexts, that is, in the words “coop” and “keep.” To produce the /k/ in /kup/, the back of the tongue would be close to the anterior portion of the velum because, in this context, it is followed by the back vowel /u/. To produce the /k/ in “keep,” the tongue would be pulled forward, closer to the posterior portion of the palate, because /k/ is followed by the front vowel /i/. In anticipation of the forward place of articulation for /i/, the /k/ is produced more forward than normal. Keep in mind that a phoneme’s identity often is altered by the other phonemes that precede or follow it.

Exercise 5.1—THE STOPCONSONANTS A. Place an “X” by the words with a stop consonant in their transcriptions. 1. wish

6. runs

11. church

16. think

2. spring

7. whisper

12. tomb

17. rummage

3. loom

8. question 13. logical

18. realm

4. brush

9. system

19. guess

5. window 10. phase

14. jeans

15. Stephen 20. fox

B. For each item, select the word(s) that have the specified criterion in their transcriptions. (There may be more than one correct response for each question.) man

about

perky

could

plaque

green

Example: man, about, perky, plaque

Contains a bilabial sound 1. Contains a high front vowel

2. Contains a voiceless alveolar stop

3. Contains no stops

4. Contains a velar stop

5. Contains a central vowel

6. Ends with a voiceless sound

7. Begins with a voiced sound

8. Contains a back vowel and a voiced stop

9. Begins with a voiceless sound

10. Contains a front vowel and a voiceless stop

C. Indicate which of the following words have either a tap (T) or a glottal stop (G) in their transcriptions. Indicate which it would be by writing T or G in the blank. 1. table

4. listen

7. written

10. Lincoln

2. better

5. quittin’

8. beaten

11. pushin’

3. errand

6. uncle

9. walked

12. splatter Continues

122 Consonants

Exercise 5.1 (Cont.) 13. rotted

15. bottle

17. bitten

14. sweatin’ 16. talkin’

19. rotten

18. wedded 20. fodder

D. The words below all end with the “-ed” morpheme. Indicate in the blank whether the final phoneme should be transcribed as /t/ or /d/. 1. wished

6. danced

11. sailed

16. crabbed

2. loaded

7. wrapped 12. leased

3. endorsed

8. hanged 13. reached 18. meshed

17. placed

4. endangered 9. hoped

14. toted

5. robbed

15. wrecked 20. carved

10. traded

19. burned

E. Circle the real English words given below. 1. /kipɚt/

5. /pɝkt/

9. /pɝpət/

13. /tʊkɪ/

2. /təkɪd/

6. /pækət/

10. /pɪkɪ/

14. /ɡækət/

3. /ədɛbt/

7. /tɛpɪd/

11. /ətæk/

15. /dɛɹbɪ/

4. /paʊɾɚ/

8. /taɪɾɚ/

12. /tɔɹkot/

16. /pipʔd/

F. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. 1. /pɑɾɚɪ/

7. /ɡʌpɪ/

2. /pʌkɚd/

8. /pækɪŋ/

3. /pəteɪɾoʊ/

9. /daɪpɚd/

4. /dɑktɚ/

10. /peɪpɚbɔɪ/

5. /tɑɹɡət/

11. /dækɚɪ/

6. /pʌpət/

12. /daɪətəd/

G. For each item below, correct any vowel, diphthong, or stop consonant transcription errors by marking out the incorrect IPA symbol and placing the correct symbol above it. If no error is present, indicate by circling “no error.” Examples: a.

cap

/kæp/

no error

tick

ɪ /tɛk/

no error

direct

/dɚɛkt/

no error

tighter

/taɪɾɚ/

no error

goaded

/ɡoʊded/

no error

corker

/kɔɹkɚ/

no error

Carter

/cɑɹɾɚ/

no error

partake

/pɔɹteɪk/

no error

repeat

/ɹepit/

no error

poet

/poʊət/

no error

oboe

/oʊboʊ/

no error

10.

paper

/pɑpɚ/

no error Continues

Chapter Five 123

Exercise 5.1 (Cont.) H. Word Analysis Read the phonetic descriptions of the following words. Then write the appropriate IPA symbols and the English orthography on the two lines. Example: voiceless alveolar stop + low front lax

/tæɡ/

vowel + voiced velar stop

tag

1. voiceless velar stop + high front lax vowel + voiced alveolar stop

2. high front tense vowel + voiced velar

3. voiceless alveolar stop + low-mid front vowel + voiceless bilabial stop + high front lax vowel + voiced alveolar stop

4. mid-central unrounded lax vowel + voiced bilabial stop + low-mid backcentral unrounded lax vowel + voiceless alveolar stop

5. voiced alveolar stop + low back tense vowel + voiceless velar stop + voiceless alveolar stop

6. voiced velar stop + low-mid back tense vowel + voiced alveolar stop + high front lax vowel

I. Written Transcription Practice

Transcribe the following words. Remember to enclose your transcriptions with virgules. 1. cape

16. apart

2. pared

17. guarded

3. dog

18. boater

4. tied

19. Bobby

5. kept

20. barter

6. debt

21. bigger

7. bake

22. beaker

8. pour

23. tuba

24. cabby

9. bored 10. pork

25. peered

11. peat

26. backed

12. taupe

27. perky

13. took

28. geared

14. putt

29. dagger

15. coat

30. giddy

Continues

124 Consonants

Exercise 5.1 (Cont.) 31. carpet

36. bagboy

32. doctor

37. debate

33. ticket

38. torrid

34. decked

39. parrot

35. tired

40. dirty

Complete Assignment 5-1.

The NasalConsonants PronunciationGuide /m/

as in “man”

/mæn/

/ŋ/

as in “ring”

/ɹɪŋ/

/n/

as in “new”

/nu/

The three nasal consonants /m, n, and ŋ/ are produced in a method similar to the stop consonants. That is, the airstream is completely obstructed in the oral cavity during their production. Also, the obstruction occurs at the same three places of articulation as the stops, that is, bilabial, alveolar, and velar (refer to Figures5.2, 5.3, and 5.4). However, this is where the similarity ends. Nasal consonants are sonorants, not obstruents. Nasal consonants are produced with the velum lowered so that the airstream and acoustic vibrations continually flow into the nasal cavity. The obstruction at the lips, alveolar ridge, or velum is maintained during the production of the nasal consonants as it is for stops. There is no release of intraoral pressure from the oral cavity. The articulators simply block the flow of air out of the oral cavity so that the airstream may continually flow through the nasal cavity and out through the nares. If you sustain the production of /m/ and place your index finger under your nose (as if you were trying to stifle a sneeze), you can feel a lightly escaping airstream. Another difference between stop and nasal consonants is the fact that all nasal consonants are voiced; they have no voiceless counterparts in English. Like vowels, the sound source for nasals is the vibration of the vocal folds. Recall that, in some instances, nasal phonemes may become syllabic. In the word “written” /ɹɪʔn̩ / , the syllabic /n̩ / marks both the consonant and the vowel in the second syllable. Lowercase m

/m/

Description /m/ voiced, bilabial nasal SampleWords mark slam

mend

/m/

cramp

dimpled

alarming

Chapter Five

125

Sample Words (Cont.) maybe

amounted

grump

mother

drama

MinimalPairs

stomach

/m/

/p/

/b/

roamed

roped

robed

mark

messed crams sum

slam

park pest

craps sup

slap

bark best

crabs sub

slab

Allographs Grapheme

Example

hammer

cram

Discussion During production of /m/, the velum is lowered so that the airstream enters the nasal cavity. The lips are brought together in order to halt the airstream coming from the larynx (similar to the constriction for the phoneme /b/). Because /m/ is voiced, the vocal folds vibrate during its production. The oral resonating cavity for /m/ is the largest of the three nasals; it includes the entire oral cavity, extending from the lips to the oropharynx. The tongue is poised in position for the vowel following production of /m/. Figure 5.4 shows the articulation of the

Figure 5.4 Bilabial nasalarticulation.

126 Consonants bilabial nasal /m/. Compare this figure with the articulation of a bilabial stop, as shown in Figure5.1. Note the differing position of the velum in these two figures: It is lowered in Figure5.4, and it is raised in Figure5.1. In some instances, /m/ may become syllabic in conversational speech, depending on the phonetic environment. For example, the word “happen” becomes / hæpm̩ /, and the phrase “wrap them up” becomes “wrap ’em up” /ɹæpm̩ əp/. Note the occurrence of syllabic /m/ in these examples due to the homorganic /p/ preceding the bilabial /m/. Lowercase n

/n/

Description /n/ voiced, alveolar nasal SampleWords note

/n/

nail

Andover

Nile

nervous

loaned

answered

tunes

astound

snowball MinimalPairs

runner

mannerism

/n/

/m/

/n/

/m/

note

mote (moat)

Nate

mate

nail

loan grin

noon roan

mail (male) loam grim

nine

cunning warned

moon

roam (Rome)

sunning dinner

mine coming

warmed

summing dimmer

Allographs Grapheme

Example

dinner

nice

Discussion The phoneme /n/ is produced in a manner similar to /m/, except for its place of articulation. /n/ is an alveolar consonant, similar to /t/ (refer to Figure5.2). The tongue tip (or blade) contacts the alveolar ridge in order to impede the flow of air coming from the larynx. Because the place of articulation is posterior to that for /m/, the oral cavity is slightly smaller, causing a different resonance to be created in the vocal tract. Transcription of this sound is fairly straightforward. However, when /n/ occurs at the end of a word, and the preceding consonant is an alveolar (homorganic) obstruent, such as /d, t, s, or ʔ/, the /n/ often becomes the nucleus of the syllable (syllabic). Some examples follow with the homorganic consonant allograph underlined.

Chapter Five 127

ridden

/ɹɪdn̩/

gotten

/ɡaʔn̩/

lesson

/lɛsn̩/

eaten

/iʔn̩/

reason

/ɹizn̩/

chosen

/tʃoʊzn̩/

Note that for the word “ridden,” the stop /d/ may be released through the nasal cavity as the velum is lowered in production of /n/ (nasal plosion). Examine the following words. Although the preceding consonant (underlined) is not homorganic, many individuals still use the syllabic /n̩/ in transcription because the vowel between the consonants is almost nonexistent. ribbon

/ɹɪbn̩/

muffin

/mʌfn̩/

happen

/hæpn̩/ (or /hæpm̩ /)

One last word about the use, or actually nonuse, of /n/. Keep in mind that in words containing the letter string “-ing,” the phoneme /ŋ/ is used, not /n/ (refer to the following section on /ŋ/). Eng

/ŋ/

Description /ŋ/ voiced, velar nasal SampleWords

/ŋ/

ring

clank

stinky

being

dangle

wrinkle

wrangler finger

ankle

larynx

lingo

wrangler

Allographs Grapheme

Example

link

sing

Discussion /ŋ/ is produced similarly to the other two nasal consonants in terms of voicing and velar opening. However, for /ŋ/, the point of constricted airflow in the oral cavity is the most posterior, between the back of the tongue and the anterior portion of the velum (or sometimes the posterior portion of the hard palate, in a manner similar to /k/ and /ɡ/; refer to Figure5.3). The oral resonating cavity for /ŋ/ is the shortest of all (when compared to /m/ and /n/) given that the constriction in the vocal tract is adjacent to the pharynx. /ŋ/ never begins a word in English; it is found only in the intervocalic or postvocalic positions of a word. In relation to transcription, /ŋ/ poses some interesting dilemmas for beginning transcribers. Note the use of /ŋ/ with the following letter strings: Letter String

Sample Word

Transcription

ank

lanky

/læŋkɪ/

ink

ynx inx

kink lynx

sphinx

/kɪŋk/

/lɪŋks/

/sfɪŋks/

128 Consonants It would not be possible to say these words using /n/ instead of /ŋ/ (try it for yourself). In some words, such as “English” and “finger,” /ŋ/ is always followed by the voiced, velar stop /ɡ/ in its pronunciation. However, there are other words in English, such as “longing” and “stinger,” in which the production of /ɡ/ is variable. Contrast the following two sets of words: Word

Transcription

Word

ingot

/ɪŋɡət/

singer

linger anger

/lɪŋɡɚ/

/æŋɡɚ/

Transcription

hanger

/hæŋɡɚ/

/hæŋɚ/

clanging

/klæŋɡɪŋ/

/klæŋɪŋ/

/sɪŋɡɚ/

/sɪŋɚ/

Note that all of the words in the first set always have /ɡ/ in their transcriptions, whereas the words in the second set may be pronounced with or without the /ɡ/, depending on individual speaker differences and/or dialect; /ɡ/ is in free variation. Similar to /m/ and /n/, /ŋ/ may become syllabic when it follows a homorganic velar obstruent such as /k/ or /ɡ/ as in “bacon” /beɪkŋ̩/ or “wagon” /wæɡŋ̩/.

Exercise 5.2—THE NASALCONSONANTS A. Place an “X” by the words with a nasal phoneme in their transcriptions. 1. ring

6. jasmine 11. moan

16. ripen

2. bomb 7. crease

12. spanking 17. unfair

3. pet

8. inside

13. possible

18. monkey

4. stop

9. trait

14. trench

19. lure

15. lung

20. failure

5. tomb 10. loaner

B. Indicate with an “X” the words that have /ŋ/ in their transcriptions. 1. angle

8. singe

15. banging

2. angel

9. ginger

16. Manx

3. brink

10. danger

17. ingest

4. mango

11. blinker

18. singer

5. Angie

12. hanger

19. hunger

6. single

13. ringing

20. jangle

7. conjure

14. mingle

21. congeal

C. Circle the words in B that could have /ŋ/ followed by /ɡ/ in their transcriptions. (Some words may be pronounced differently due to speaker dialect.) D. Place an “X” next to the words that have /ɡ/ in their transcriptions. 1. hinge

7. ring

13. tango

2. bangle

8. drank

14. flange

3. wings

9. onyx

15. engine

4. single

10. tingle

16. English

5. wrong

11. bungee

17. tongue

6. mangle

12. kangaroo

18. dangerous

Continues

Chapter Five 129

Exercise 5.2 (Cont.) E. Place an “X” next to the words that have /n/ in their transcriptions. 1. pharynx

7. engine

13. ginger

2. English

8. flank

14. blanket

3. bungee

9. tingle

15. tongue

4. length

10. lunge

16. danger

5. lungs

11. strength

17. vengeance

6. jungle

12. tango

18. ranges

F. For each item, select the word(s) that have the specified criterion in their transcriptions. (There may be more than one correct response for each question.) good

mutton

curving

bank

napped

taken

carton

code

1. Contains an initial labial sound

2. Contains a voiced initial sound

3. Ends with a stop

4. Contains a central vowel

5. Ends with a voiceless sound

6. Contains a velar nasal

7. Contains a syllabic consonant

8. Contains no nasals

9. C ontains a low front vowel and a labial consonant

10. C ontains a velar consonant and a back vowel

G. Circle the words that represent real English words. 1. /kæmp/

5. /tɪŋɡə/

9. /dænk/

2. /neɪm/

6. /nɪŋɡɪd/

10. /bʌmpɪ/

3. /mɛlɪ/

7. /kɹæŋkɪ/

11. /pɪntoʊ/

4. /pint/

8. /kɔɹn/

12. /pɑɹmɔɪ/

H. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. 1. /næb/

7. /kændɪ/

2. /kɑnd/

8. /əpɔɪnt/

3. /əmæs/

9. /kʊkɪŋ/

4. /æŋɡɚ/

10. /tumɚ/

5. /mɔɹnɪŋ/

11. /taɪʔn̩/

6. /bɛndɪŋ/

12. /maɪndəd/

I. For each item below, correct any vowel, diphthong, nasal, or stop consonant transcription errors by marking out the incorrect IPA symbol and placing the correct symbol above it. If no error is present, indicate by circling “no error.” 1. camper

/kæmpɚ/

no error

2. adorn

/ədɔɹn/

no error Continues

130 Consonants

Exercise 5.2 (Cont.) 3. duffer

/dəfɝ/

no error

4. bunting

/bʌntɪŋ/

no error

5. bingo

/bɪŋoʊ/

no error

6. pecking

/pɛckɪŋ/

no error

7. Dayton

/deɪʔən/

no error

8. batter

/bædɝ/

no error

9. baking

/bɑkɪŋ/

no error

/dɔɹknɑb/

no error

10. doorknob J. Word Analysis

Read the phonetic descriptions of the following words. Then write the appropriate IPA symbols and the English orthography on the two lines. 1. v oiceless velar stop + low front vowel + alveolar nasal + voiced alveolar stop

2. v oiced bilabial nasal + low-mid back-central vowel + alveolar nasal + high front lax vowel

3. m id-central lax unrounded vowel + voiceless alveolar stop + high-mid front vowel + alveolar nasal

4. v oiceless velar stop + low back vowel + velar nasal + voiced velar stop + high-mid back vowel

5. v oiced bilabial stop + mid-central tense rounded vowel + voiceless bilabial stop + voiceless alveolar stop

K. Transcription Practice Transcribe the following words using the IPA. 1. mink

15. knight

2. pert

16. dumb

3. tan

17. could

4. king

18. torn

5. done

19. tongue

6. knead

20. gone

7. bang

21. under

8. gnome

22. tankard

9. monk

23. peanut

10. coin

24. dandy

11. earn

25. partake

12. newt

26. Monday

13. town

27. nomad

14. mood

28. bongo

Continues

Chapter Five 131

Exercise 5.2 (Cont.) 29. madam

35. command

30. gander

36. mirror

31. omit

37. countin’

32. negate

38. daring

33. tunic

39. empire

34. donkey

40. coward

Complete Assignment 5-2.

The FricativeConsonants PronunciationGuide /f/

as in “form”

/fɔɹm/

/v/

as in “van”

/væn/

/s/

as in “sip”

/sɪp/

/z/

as in “zoo”

/zu/

/θ/ /ʃ/

/h/

as in “thick” as in “shell” as in “ham”

/θɪk/ /ʃɛl/

/hæm/

/ð/ /ʒ/

as in “them”

/ðɛm/

as in “rouge” /ɹuʒ/

Fricatives are produced by forcing the breath stream (whether voiced or voiceless) through a narrow channel, or constriction, in the vocal tract. The articulators do not close completely during fricative production as they do in stop consonant production. They simply converge to form a slit to create the channel necessary for production of each fricative phoneme. There are five different places of articulation (points of constriction) in the vocal tract used for production of the nine English fricatives. These include the linguadental, labiodental, alveolar, postalveolar, and glottal places of articulation. Fricatives have voiced/voiceless cognate phonemes at each place of articulation. The only exception is the glottal fricative /h/, which is generally voiceless in English. Unlike stops and nasals, there are no bilabial or velar fricatives in English. However, these phonemes do exist in other languages. For instance, bilabial fricatives occur in Spanish and in Ewe, a West African language, and velar fricatives exist in German and Hebrew. Interestingly, bilabial and velar fricatives are sometimes produced by English-speaking adults and children as a result of a speech sound disorder. Because the airstream from the lungs is being forced through a narrow channel, a turbulent, frictional noise is generated at the point of constriction. Fricatives, like stops, are considered to be obstruents because their production involves an obstruction of the airstream in the vocal tract. Voiceless fricatives, like voiceless stop consonants, are produced without the benefit of the vibrating vocal folds as the sound source. Therefore, the breath stream from the lungs must be forceful enough to create an audible turbulence at the point of constriction in the vocal tract. Similar to voiced stops, voiced fricatives have a second sound source—the vibrating vocal folds. In order to maintain voicing during their production, voiced fricatives have less airflow through the constriction in the oral cavity when compared to voiceless fricatives. Therefore,

132 Consonants voiced fricatives are less intense than the voiceless fricatives; they are perceived as being softer than voiceless fricatives.

/f/ /v/

Lowercase f Lowercase v Description /f/

voiceless, labiodental fricative

/v/

voiced, labiodental fricative

SampleWords /f/

/v/

foam

love

free

veal

phobia

calves

coffer

vane

rough

over

turf

vase

MinimalPairs /f/

/v/

fend

vend

fail

veil

fan

van

leaf

leave

first

versed

proof

prove

Allographs /f/

Grapheme

Example

fix

muffin

rough

phone

Grapheme

/v/

Example

vote

Stephen

Discussion The point of constriction for /f/ and /v/ is formed by bringing the lower lip close to the edges of the upper central incisors (refer to Figure5.5). The lower jaw must be raised near the upper jaw to accomplish this maneuver. The breath stream is forced through the narrow constriction formed by the lower lip and upper teeth. The labiodental fricatives are quite easy to transcribe. The only allographs associated with /f/ that may cause trouble at first are “ph” and “gh.” /v/ is generally used with words containing the letter “v” except in the rare case of “f” and “ph” (refer to the allographs just listed for examples).

Chapter Five

133

Figure 5.5 Labiodentalarticulation.

/θ/ /ð/

Theta Eth Description /θ/

/ð/

voiceless, interdental fricative voiced, interdental fricative

SampleWords /θ/

/ð/

/θ/

/ð/

thought

lathe

breath

breathe

thermal froth with

though feather wither

bath

thigh ether

bathe thy

either

Note: “Either” and “ether” are minimal pairs, as are “thigh” and “thy.” Allographs Grapheme

/θ/

Example

thistle

Grapheme th

/ð/

Example

although

Discussion The interdental fricatives are named “theta” /θ/ (voiceless) and “eth” /ð/ (voiced). These phonemes are produced by forcing the breath stream through a constriction formed by the apex (or blade) of the tongue and the lower edge of the upper central incisors. The tongue is placed between the teeth for this articulation, hence the label interdental. Simultaneously, the sides of the tongue contact the upper molars to help direct the voiced or voiceless breath stream toward the constriction (refer to Figure5.6).

134 Consonants

Figure 5.6 Interdentalarticulation.

A second way in which these phonemes may be produced is by forming a constriction between the apex of the tongue and the posterior portion of the upper central incisors. This particular articulation of these phonemes is termed appropriately dental, as opposed to interdental. /θ/ and /ð/ are both represented, in spelling, by the digraph “th.” This is the only spelling representation of these two phonemes. Therefore, it is confusing at first for students learning how to transcribe words with /θ/ and /ð/. You may need to practice listening for the difference in voicing between the two phonemes since the spelling is the same for both sounds. Examine the previously presented sample words for /θ/ and /ð/. Practice saying them aloud while listening to the voicing differences of the two phonemes.

/s/ /z/

Lowercase s Lowercase z Description /s/

/z/

voiceless, alveolar fricative voiced, alveolar fricative

SampleWords /s/

/z/

/s/

/z/

centaur

azalea

cease

pays

sew

assert

zenith fuzzy

lesson awesome

xylophone Aztec

MinimalPairs /s/

seal

/z/

zeal

/s/

brace

/z/

braise

Chapter Five 135

MinimalPairs (Cont.) lacy

lazy

spice

spies

sue

zoo

sip

zip

loose

seek

lose

race

Zeke

noose

raise

news

purse

purrs

Allographs Grapheme s

sc c

/s/

Example

Grapheme

press

sink

science ice

/z/

Example zone fizz

was

scissors

Xanadu

Discussion The constriction for the alveolar fricatives is formed in one of two ways, depending on the individual speaker. The first involves the articulation of either the tongue apex or blade and the alveolar ridge. The tongue is raised so that it only approximates the ridge; the tongue does not make direct contact. At the same time, the tongue forms a tapering groove along its central or midline portion as the back of the tongue contacts the upper molars. The second method for producing the alveolar fricatives is by placing the tip of the tongue behind the lower central incisors while the front of the tongue is raised to approximate the alveolar ridge. The tongue is still grooved along its central portion, and the sides of the tongue make contact with the upper molars. For both articulations, the channel formed by the tongue and teeth helps direct the airstream anteriorly through the closely held upper and lower teeth. In terms of transcription, the biggest problem for students is learning the correct use of /s/ and /z/ to represent the plural “-s” morpheme in words. Examine the following word pairs. Is the final phoneme transcribed as /s/ or /z/? taps tabs

seats

seeds

walks runs

chicks hogs

Whenever the final consonant of a word is voiceless, its plural marker is transcribed as the voiceless phoneme /s/. The words “taps,” “seats,” “walks,” and “chicks” all have a voiceless phoneme immediately preceding the plural morpheme /s/. The remaining words, which all have a voiced phoneme prior to the plural marker, are transcribed with /z/. Whenever the plural form of a word is “es” as in “babies” or “ladies,” the plural phoneme is also represented by /z/ because it follows a (voiced) vowel. (The singular forms of these words, “baby” and “lady,” end with the vowel /ɪ/.) This voicing rule should seem familiar to you because similar practice is involved in using the phonemes /t/ and /d/ to indicate the “-ed” morpheme. The phoneme /z/ is used by some speakers in pronunciation of words that are normally transcribed with an /s/. Examples include: resource → /ɹizɔɹs/

greasy → /ɡɹizɪ/

absurd → /æbzɝd/

136 Consonants

/ʃ/ /ʒ/

Esh Yogh Description /ʃ/

/ʒ/

voiceless, postalveolar fricative voiced, postalveolar fricative

SampleWords /ʃ/

/ʒ/

sure

casual

shook

fusion

mansion

profusion

machine

measure

cashier

regime

pressure

television

national

seizure

omniscient

erosion

Allographs /ʃ/

/ʒ/

Grapheme

Example

Grapheme

Example

shape

azure

pressure

garage

sci

conscience

measure

ocean

vision

machine

brazier

social

sugar

pension

Discussion These two fricatives are produced when the breath stream is forced through a constriction formed in a manner quite similar to the alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/. The tongue has a groove along its central portion (although it is broader), and the sides of the tongue contact the upper molars. The airstream is directed anteriorly toward the front teeth. The constriction for /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ is formed by the tongue blade and the hard palate. This articulation is just posterior to the constriction formed for the alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/ (refer to Figure5.7). Unlike /s/ and /z/, the lips are rounded in production of /ʃ/ and /ʒ/. Because the articulation for /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ is just posterior to the place of articulation of the alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/, many professionals consider the place of articulation for /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ to have a postalveolar or palatoalveolar articulation. (The IPA chart lists these phonemes as postalveolar.) There is lack of consensus among phoneticians and linguists as to the exact place of articulation of /ʃ/ and /ʒ/. According to Ladefoged and Johnson (2015), there appears to be “no clear-cut distinction” (p.179) between palatal and palatoalveolar phonemes in reference to place of articulation. They also state that due to differences in hard

Chapter Five

137

Figure 5.7 Postalveolararticulation.

palate anatomy between speakers, different tongue placements are warranted to produce the necessary vocal tract resonance for proper phoneme recognition of these phonemes. In this text, we refer to these phonemes as postalveolar. However, your instructor may prefer to classify these phonemes as palatoalveolar. Check with your instructor to make sure. The transcription of the phonemes /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ is a bit tricky at first. Students often confuse them with the two affricates /tʃ/ as in “cheap” and /dʒ/ as in “jam.” Compare the following minimal pairs: sheep /ʃip/

— cheap /tʃip/

leisure /lɛʒɚ/

— ledger /lɛdʒɚ/

shoe /ʃu/

— chew /tʃu/

Hopefully you hear the difference in the pronunciation of these words. An explanation of the affricate manner of production follows this section. Lowercase h

/h/

Description /h/

voiceless, glottal fricative

SampleWords hook

helium hairy

Harold

/h/

whose

behave ahead

unhook

138 Consonants Allographs Grapheme h

/h/

Example hit

who

Discussion The fricative /h/ is created when the breath stream is forced through the abducted vocal folds (the glottis), causing vibration throughout the vocal tract. /h/ is considered to be voiceless because the vocal folds are not vibrating during its production. In English, /h/ is the only fricative without a voiced cognate. Unlike the other fricatives, production of /h/ does not involve a true constriction in the vocal tract as is seen in production of /f/ or /ʒ/, for example. When /h/ precedes the high vowels /i, ɪ, u, and ʊ/, the friction noise is created entirely, or nearly so, at the constriction formed by the tongue and palate, not at the glottis. Say the words “he” /hi/ and “who” /hu/, and you will see that this is true. Even though /h/ is considered voiceless, in some phonetic contexts it may take on a voiced quality. For instance, in the word “ahead” /əhɛd/, a vowel both precedes and follows /h/, causing it to become voiced (because the vowels are both voiced). There is an IPA symbol for voiced /h/ that could be used in situations such as this—/əɦɛd/(refer to Figure2.1 in Chapter2, which depicts the IPA chart). It also could be transcribed as [əh̬ɛd] using narrow transcription. During the production of /h/, the articulators take on the shape of whichever vowel follows. For example, compare the shape and position of your lips for the words “hoop” and “heap.” You will immediately notice that your lips are rounded—even before you produce the /h/ phoneme—in the word “hoop.” Similarly, your lips are unrounded before the production of /h/ in “heap.” For this reason, /h/ is sometimes considered to be a voiceless vowel (Raphael etal., 2011). The transcription of /h/ should pose few problems for students because the only allographs of /h/ are “h” and “wh.”

Exercise 5.3—THE FRICATIVECONSONANTS A. Place an “X” by the words with a fricative phoneme in their transcriptions. 1. push

6. brazen

11. Montana 16. hombre

2. thesis

7. cares

12. pleasure

17. leaks

3. loom

8. burlap

13. leather

18. worthy

4. happy

9. croissant

14. marrow

19. crouton

5. caution

10. vendor

15. other

20. rajah

B. Indicate which of the following words have /ʃ/ or /ʒ/ in their transcriptions. Write the correct phoneme next to the word. (Hint: Watch out for /tʃ/ and /dʒ/!) 1. mishap

8. badge

15. Sean

2. usually

9. lesion

16. passion

3. decision

10. lotion

17. ricochet

4. cheese

11. corsage

18. college

5. largest

12. changed

19. allusion

6. reason

13. friction

20. inject

7. election

14. juice

21. Persia Continues

Chapter Five 139

Exercise 5.3 (Cont.) C. For the following words, indicate whether the “th” sound is voiced (/ð/) or voiceless (/θ/) by placing the correct IPA symbol in the blank. 1. smoothly

9. lathe

17. another

2. method

10. thought

18. anything

3. other

11. clothes

19. withstand

4. those

12. weather

20. wither

5. moth

13. thimble

21. author

6. gather

14. booth

22. smother

7. wrath

15. oath

23. bothers

8. writhe

16. scathing

24. atheist

D. For each item, create real words (or proper names) by placing one of the nine fricatives in the blank. Write your answers in the blank at the right of each item. More than one answer is possible for each item.

/f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h/ Example: /u/

/s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /h/ (The words created are “sue,” “zoo,” “shoe,” and “who.”)

1. /mu/

2. /wɪ/

3. /ʌɚ/

4. /lɛɚ/

5. /ɛɹɪ/

6. /ɹu/

7. /aɪ/

8. /ɪɹ/

E. For each item, select each word from the list that has the specified criterion in its transcription. More than one answer is possible for each item. them

beige

hug

wreath

tape

cash

soon

vend

1. Begins with a voiceless fricative

2. Begins with a voiced obstruent

3. Ends with a voiceless obstruent

4. C ontains a front vowel and a voiceless fricative

5. Contains an alveolar sound

6. Contains all voiced phonemes

7. Contains a stop and a fricative

8. Contains a nasal and a fricative

9. C ontains a fricative and a central vowel

10. Contains no fricatives

Continues

140 Consonants

Exercise 5.3 (Cont.) F. Indicate whether the following words should be transcribed with a final /s/ or a final /z/. 1. babes

7. bananas

13. dramas

2. chafes

8. drinks

14. croaks

3. cars

9. passes

15. meats

4. books

10. throws

16. affairs

5. carpets

11. loaves

17. loafs

6. pushes

12. roasts

18. birds

G. Circle the words that represent real English words. 1. /ʃʊk/

5. /vɛɹɪ/

9. /pɝs/

13. /feɪvɚ/

2. /ʒɪŋ/

6. /ðaɪ/

10. /ʃɑɹk/

14. /kɹeɪzd/

3. /zɔɹt/

7. /θɹʊ/

11. /ɪɹðu/

15. /bɪʒɚ/

4. /θɝd/

8. /vɔɪnz/

12. /ʃæku/

16. /hoʊðɚ/

H. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. 1. /eɪʒən/

9. /sɝvəst/

2. /vɔɹtɛks/

10. /ʌðɚz/

3. /vɑɹnɪʃ/

11. /fɹoʊzn̩/

4. /bɑðɚ/

12. /ʃɪvɚd/

5. /spɛɹd/

13. /fæʔn̩/

6. /θæŋks/

14. /hɔɹɚ/

7. /hɪɹseɪ/

15. /ɡəziboʊ/

8. /ɝbən/

16. /bɝθdeɪz/

I. For each item below, correct any vowel or consonant transcription errors by marking out the incorrect IPA symbol and placing the correct symbol above it. If no error is present, indicate by circling “no error.” 1. bijou

/biʃu/

no error

2. neither

/niθɚ/

no error

3. verify

/vɛɹifaɪ/

no error

4. hosed

/hosd/

no error

5. Hoosier

/huʒɚ/

no error

6. panther

/pænðɚ/

no error

7. assure

/əʃʊɹ/

no error

8. favored

/fevɚd/

no error

9. shining

/shaɪninɡ/

no error

10. earthy

/ɛɹθɪ/

no error

11. amnesia

/æmniʒə/

no error

12. unthinking

/ʌnθɪnkɪŋ/

no error Continues

Chapter Five 141

Exercise 5.3 (Cont.) J. Transcription Practice Transcribe the following words using the IPA. 1. Garth

21. thunder

2. fence

22. heather

3. sure

23. satin

4. dozed

24. sheepish

5. soared

25. surrounds

6. hives

26. Horton

7. shout

27. thirty

8. thorns

28. vision

9. those

29. pharynx

10. haste

30. third base

11. perhaps

31. goiter

12. shorter

32. terror

13. perused

33. thousand

14. unversed

34. contour

15. mother

35. shortcake

16. consumed

36. varied

17. mirage

37. defies

18. potions

38. discussed

19. overt

39. shorthand

20. Tarzan

40. muttered

Complete Assignment 5-3.

The AffricateConsonants PronunciationGuide /tʃ/

/dʒ/

/tʃ/ /dʒ/

as in “chair” as in “jar”

/tʃɛɹ/

/dʒɑɹ/

The affricate manner of production involves a combination of the stop and fricative manners. For this reason, affricates are obstruents. Similar to the fricatives /ʃ/ and /ʒ/, both English affricates are considered to have a postalveolar (or palatoalveolar) place of articulation. During production of the two affricates, the articulation begins as an alveolar stop. The tongue tip contacts the posterior alveolar ridge; there is a corresponding increase in intraoral pressure in the oral cavity. However, when the breath stream is released (voiced or voiceless), the air is forced through the constriction formed by the tongue and palate, creating a turbulent noise. (The constriction is similar to that formed during production of the postalveolar fricatives /ʃ/ and /ʒ/.) Description /tʃ/

/dʒ/

voiceless, postalveolar affricate voiced, postalveolar affricate

142 Consonants SampleWords /tʃ/

/dʒ/

righteous

adjoin

chick

jelly

nature

injure

crutch

badger

chimney

Jake

hatchet

refrigerate

wretched

generous

MinimalPairs /tʃ/

/dʒ/

/tʃ/

/dʒ/

batch

badge

cherry

Jerry

etch

match rich “H”

edge

chin

Madge

cheap

ridge

chalk

age

choke

gin

jeep

jock

joke

Allographs /tʃ/

/dʒ/

Grapheme

Example

Grapheme

Example

tch

witch

gem

ch t

check

nature

righteous

question

gg d

dg di

joke

exaggerate educate lodge

soldier

Discussion Although English has only two phonemic affricates, different languages possess others, such as /ts/. This affricate combines the voiceless alveolar stop /t/ and the voiceless alveolar fricative /s/. The phonemes /t/ and /s/ do appear together in some English words and phrases such as “cats” /kæts/ and “let’s go” / lɛtsɡoʊ/. In these contexts, /ts/ is not a distinct phoneme. It is actually the result of the phoneme /t/ plus the morpheme /-s/. (In these contexts, /s/ is used as a plural morpheme in “cats” and as a contraction in “let’s.”) Be careful not to confuse the affricates /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ with the fricatives /ʃ/ and /ʒ/!

Exercise 5.4—THE AFFRICATECONSONANTS A. Indicate the words below that have /tʃ/ or /dʒ/ in their transcriptions. Write the correct phoneme next to the word. bon voyage

charming

gerbil

barrage

vulture

fantasia

arrange

mushroom

touches Continues

Chapter Five 143

Exercise 5.4 (Cont.) pasture

rigid

gender

riches

exertion

eject

nitrogen charade

cabbage

glacier

sabotage

unchained

B. For each item, create as many real words (or proper names) as possible by placing one of the following fricatives or affricates in the blank. Write your answers to the right of each item. More than one answer is possible for each item.

/f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h, tʃ, dʒ/ 1. /ɛɹ/

3. /oʊ/

2. /æt/

4. /ɑɹm/ 5. /ɪn/ 6. /ɹi/

7. /bæ/

8. /bi/

C. For each item, select the word from the list that has the specified criterion in its transcription. More than one answer is possible for each item. other

shrunk

none

jeans

hedge

churned

measure

1. Contains an initial voiced phoneme

3. Contains an affricate and a front vowel

2. Contains a fricative

4. Contains an affricate and a nasal 5. Contains a palatal obstruent

6. Contains an obstruent and a central vowel 7. Contains a stop, nasal, and affricate 8. Contains all voiced sounds

D. Circle the words that represent real English words. 1. /skɹʌntʃ/

5. /mʊʒd/

3. /tʃɔɹz/

7. /moʊtʃ/

2. /pʊdʒɪ/

4. /hɑɹʃɚ/

9. /oʊðən/

6. /kɪtʃən/

10. /dʒeɪd/

8. /ʃɑɹm/

12. /tʃɝn/

11. /hʌdʒ/

13. /fæʃtɚ/

14. /ɡaʊtʃt/

15. /dʒʌmpɪ/ 16. /pɑɹtʃt/

E. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. 1. /tʃɝpt/

3. /tʃɪt tʃæt/

2. /dʒʌŋk/

4. /wɪʃboʊn/ 5. /ədʒɔɪnd/ 6. /mɑtʃoʊ/ 7. /ɡəɹɑʒ/

8. /pæstʃɚ/

9. /ʃʊɹlɪ/

11. /pɝtʃəs/

10. /dʒɝzɪ/

12. /tʃɑklət/

13. /mətʃʊɹ/ 14. /tʃʌmɪ/

15. /ædʒəteɪt/ 16. /dʒɛzəbɛl/ Continues

144 Consonants

Exercise 5.4 (Cont.) F. For each item below, correct any vowel or consonant transcription errors by marking out the incorrect IPA symbol and placing the correct symbol above it. If no error is present, indicate by circling “no error.” 1. major

/meɪʒɚ/

2. March

no error

/mɑɹtʃ/

3. jumped

no error

/dʒʌmpt/

4. Wichita

no error

/wɪtʃɪtɑ/

5. wedged

no error

/wɛdʒt/

6. usher

no error

/ʌʃɚ/

7. sergeant

no error

/sɝdʒənt/

8. massage

no error

/məsɑʒ/

9. gorge

no error

/dʒɔɹʒ/

10. manger

no error

/mændʒɚ/

no error

G. Transcription Practice

Transcribe the following words using the IPA. 1. shocked

21. cashmere

3. butcher

23. cashbox

2. station

4. knickers 5. extra

6. tangent

7. southern 8. necktie

9. corsage 10. spirits 11. vivid

12. shutter 13. excite 14. axon

15. scoured 16. carved

17. outshine 18. gender

19. careless 20. nurture

22. chopping

24. genders

25. charming

26. sharpened

27. cashier

28. garbage

29. orchids

30. strengthen

31. exists

32. ginger

33. thorny

34. Egypt

35. chow mein

36. perverse

37. duchess

38. anxious

39. mischief

40. capture

Complete Assignment 5-4.

The Approximant Consonants: Glides andLiquids PronunciationGuide Glides /j/

as in “yet”

/jɛt/

/w/

as in “wet”

/wɛt/

/ɹ/

as in “rip”

/ɹɪp/

/l/

as in “lip”

/lɪp/

Liquids

Chapter Five 145

The approximants, the last group of consonants to be discussed, fall into a manner of production quite different from the others already discussed. In some respects these four phonemes behave like vowels, and in other respects like consonants. Even though these consonants are produced with an obstruction in the vocal tract, the articulators are merely approximated (not brought together) during their production; the constriction in the vocal tract is less than that associated with the English obstruent consonants. Because the approximants do not usually form the nucleus of a syllable, they cannot be categorized as vowels. (The phoneme /l/ may become syllabic in some contexts, however.) In a manner similar to vowels, all of the approximants are voiced, so their sound source originates in the larynx. Also, all approximants are produced with a closed velopharyngeal port. Phoneticians have given various names to this group of consonants. The approximants have been termed semivowels, frictionless continuants, and oral resonants. The approximants are generally subdivided into two groups: glides and liquids. Glides, as their name suggests, involve a gliding motion of the articulators, in a manner similar to the production of a diphthong. For this reason, glides are often referred to as semivowels (although some individuals use this term to refer to all approximants). The duration of an approximant glide is shorter (faster) than the duration of a diphthongal glide. Glides are always prevocalic. The glides /j/ and /w/ are characterized by continued movement of the articulators throughout their production into the following vowel. The term liquid is used to categorize the oral resonant consonants /ɹ/ and /l/. Some phoneticians have categorized the liquids as semivowels and also as glides. The term liquid is in no way a reference to the way in which these phonemes are produced. Liquid is simply a general term that has been adopted by phoneticians to categorize these two phonemes. Lowercase j

/j/

Description /j/

voiced, palatal glide

SampleWords your

/j/

young

feud

cured

yellow

mutate

Yale

onion

yes

fewer

Allographs Grapheme y

eu i

/j/

Example yell

fuse

feud

union

146 Consonants Discussion /j/ is produced by raising the tongue blade toward the palate (refer to Figure5.7). The tongue and lips are in a position similar to that for production of the vowel /i/. The articulators then glide away from the articulation for /j/ to the lip and tongue position necessary for production of the following vowel. The continual motion of the articulators is what characterizes this consonant as a glide. Because the articulators change while gliding from /j/ to the following vowel, a corresponding change occurs in relation to the resonance of the vocal tract. To demonstrate the similarity in articulation for the glide /j/ and the vowel /i/, say the word “yam” /jæm/, prolonging the initial /j/ phoneme as you say the word. You should hear the phoneme /j/ being produced as you glide from /i/ to /æ/ (/iiiiæm/). Lowercase w

/w/

Description /w/

voiced, labiovelar glide

SampleWords when

/w/

weed

awash

quick

away

twins

penguin

square Allographs Grapheme w

wh qu u

swill

quartz /w/

Example we

why quit

language

Discussion The phoneme /w/ is characterized by its two simultaneous places of articulation, bilabial and velar. During the production of this phoneme, the lips become rounded and, at the same time, the back of the tongue approximates the soft palate. (Say a word beginning with /w/, and see for yourself.) In the production of this phoneme, the lips and tongue begin in the aforementioned position and continue their gliding movement into the following vowel. The beginning articulatory position for /w/ is quite similar to the position for the vowel /u/. Try saying the word “week” /wik/ by prolonging production of /w/. You should hear the glide /w/ being produced as you glide from /u/ to /i/ (/uuuuik/). Some individuals differentiate between the voiced phoneme /w/ and the voiceless phoneme /ʍ/. The phoneme /ʍ/ is used by some speakers who pronounce the first two letters in words such as “when,” “where,” and “which” as “hw.” For example, /ʍɛn/ would indicate a pronunciation of /hwɛn/ for “when.” Most speakers of American English do not distinguish between the voiced and voiceless /w/ in their speech habits. In this text, only the voiced /w/ is adopted.

Chapter Five 147

Turned r

/ɹ/

Description /ɹ/

voiced, postalveolar liquid

SampleWords red

car

stress

fear

brown

there

/ɹ/

rhesus

carrot

revolt

pure

stork

Allographs /ɹ/

Grapheme r

Example rose

barren

rhododendron

Discussion In some texts and tests in speech-language pathology, you may see the symbol /r/ being used instead of the official IPA /ɹ/. /ɹ/ can be produced in a variety of different ways by English speakers, even though they are all perceived the same. The two most common ways of producing /ɹ/ are retroflex and bunched. The production of retroflex /ɹ/ involves raising the tip of the tongue and curling it back toward the rear of the alveolar ridge (or the anterior portion of the hard palate). That is why /ɹ/ is referred to by some phoneticians as either postalveolar or alveolar. The front of the tongue lowers during production of retroflex /ɹ/, causing the tongue body to become hollowed. The second method of producing /ɹ/, the bunched articulation, involves lowering the tip of the tongue and raising (or bunching) the body of the tongue so that it closely approximates the hard palate. The voiced breath stream is forced through the constrictions formed by either method. Both the retroflex and bunched articulation of /ɹ/ are often accompanied by lip rounding depending on the following vowel (Ball & Müller, 2005; Ladefoged & Johnson, 2015). In Southern and Eastern American dialects, some speakers delete postvocalic /ɹ/, as in “star” [stɑː] (note the lengthened vowel). Recall from Chapter4 that in Southern and Eastern American dialects, some speakers derhotacize the central vowels /ɚ/ and /ɝ/, producing them without r-coloring, as in “butter” /bʌɾə/ or “third” /θɜd/, respectively. Similarly, Southern and Eastern speakers may vocalize postvocalic /ɹ/ in the r-colored vowels /ɪɹ/, /ɛɹ/, /ʊɹ/, and /ɔɹ/ by substituting /ə/ for /ɹ/. Some examples include “fair” /fɛə/ and “lure” /lʊə/. In these examples, the r-colored vowel has become derhotacized due to the substitution of /ə/ for /ɹ/. Lowercase l

/l/

Description /l/

voiced, alveolar liquid

SampleWords lawn split

bowl

/l/

jello

mulch

hollow

148 Consonants Sample Words (Cont.) black

bottle Allographs Grapheme

pistol

allure /l/

Example lend ball

Discussion Because the airstream for /l/ flows over the sides of the tongue, /l/ is classified as a lateral consonant. The phoneme /l/ has two separate articulations depending on whether the phoneme is prevocalic or postvocalic. Each of these results in a different allophone of /l/. For prevocalic /l/ (as in “lip” or “slip”), the tongue tip is raised in order to approximate the alveolar ridge. In this position, the back of the tongue remains low in the oral cavity, and the airstream is diverted over both sides of the tongue. This is the production for the so-called light /l/. Other examples of light /l/ include “clue,” “police,” and both /l/s in “Lulu.” When /l/ occurs in the postvocalic position of words, the tongue tip is lowered, and the back of the tongue is raised to approximate the palate as the airstream passes over both sides of the tongue. This is the production for the velarized, or dark, /l/. This allophone of /l/ is found in the words “tall,” “chorale,” “until,” and “welcome.” In narrow transcription, dark /l/ is transcribed as [ɫ], as in “tall” [tɑɫ] and “chorale” [kɔɹæɫ], and light /l/ is transcribed as [l], as in “let” [lɛt]. For now, however, we will not distinguish between the two allophones, and we will transcribe them both using the same IPA symbol, namely, /l/.The use of diacritics in narrow transcription will be addressed in much greater detail in Chapter8. In many words, postvocalic /l/ becomes a syllabic consonant. Recall that a syllabic consonant serves as the nucleus of a syllable as in the words “rotten”/ɹɑʔn̩/ and “happen” /hæpm̩ /. Unlike syllabic nasals, syllabic /l/ does not have to follow a homorganic consonant in order for it to be syllabic. Examine the following examples of syllabic /l/. Listen to each of the words so that you are comfortable with its transcription. legalize

/liɡl ̩aɪz/

bottled

/bɑɾl ̩d/

cardinal

/kɑɹdn̩l ̩/

bundle

/bʌndl ̩/

hobble

/hɑbl ̩/

hustle

/hʌsl ̩/

Note that all of the previous examples have a velarized (dark) /l/ in their transcriptions even though it is not indicated (e.g.,[hʌsɫ̩] and [bʌndɫ̩]). In terms of dialectal variation, in African American English, word-final /l/ is sometimes replaced by /ʊ/ as in “nickel” /nɪkʊ/ or “bell” /bɛʊ/. Also, some Asian Indian speakers of English substitute /əl/ for syllabic /l/, as in “legal” /liɡəl/.

Exercise 5.5—THE APPROXIMANTCONSONANTS A. Indicate which of the following words has an approximant in its transcription. Write the correct phoneme, that is, /w, j, r, or l/, next to the word. awkward

today

towered

repaid

bellow

torpedo

Jupiter

suede

quick

reasoned

lazy

fewer Continues

Chapter Five 149

Exercise 5.5 (Cont.) peril

yawned

screaming

puny

swiped

jonquil

barley

fired

B. Indicate with an “X” which of the following words have /j/ in their transcriptions. tune

hood

choosy

jealous

piano

compute

putrid

maybe

usual

loop

jar

yours

fuel

adjourn

daisy

keynote

Cupid

boysenberry

C. Indicate with an “X” which of the following words have /w/ in their transcriptions. awesome

why

warrior

well

awry

swept

stalwart

wrath

quirk

how

rowboat

borrowed

showed

reward

wrist

lower

Howard

wayward

D. Indicate with an “X” the words that have /ɹ/ in their transcriptions. lurk

surround

purchase

barter

rewritten

perfected

burgundy

tires

scorpion

unreal

fourth

flirtatious

guarded

spirited

grandiose

grasp

curvature

divert

E. Circle the words that represent real English words. 1. /dʒɛloʊ/

6. /sɝkl ̩z/

11. /spjud/

16. /fjunts/

2. /blaɪð/

7. /fjɝt/

12. /wɑlʃɑt/

17. /jɛlɪ/

3. /ɹiljə/

8. /kwɔɹl ̩d/

13. /swɪlz/

18. /skjud/

4. /ɚoʊlɚ/

9. /wʊln̩/

14. /ɹiwɝd/

19. /ɑkwɚd/

10. /pjaɪd/

15. /poʊləs/

20. /ɹiɚən/

5. /dʒɑɹ/

F. In the blanks, write each of the words using English orthography. 1. /jɛloʊ/

9. /lɪkwəd/

2. /ɹobʌst/

10. /taɪl ̩d/

3. /wɑɹɪɚ/

11. /kɚteɪl ̩d/

4. /jɝnd/

12. /kwɑɹl ̩/

5. [/biɾl ̩z]/

13. /lʌkl ̩ɪ/

6. /ɡɹaʊtʃt/

14. /læʔn̩/

7. /ɹipjut/

15. /fjuʃə/

8. /ɡwɑvə/

16. /kwɛstʃən/ Continues

150 Consonants

Exercise 5.5 (Cont.) G. For each item below, correct any vowel, diphthong, nasal, or stop consonant transcription errors by marking out the incorrect IPA symbol and placing the correct symbol above it. If no error is present, indicate by circling “no error.” 1. bowling

/boʊwlɪŋ/

no error

2. wrongful

/wrɑŋfʊl/

no error

3. warbled

/wɑɹbl ̩d/

no error

4. pewter

/piuɾɚ/

no error

5. quandary

/qwɑndɹɪ/

no error

6. regional

/ɹidʒənl ̩/

no error

7. lawyer

/l ̩ɔjɚ/

no error

8. flurries

/fl ̩ɝis/

no error

9. fuming

/fjumɪŋ/

no error

10. baloney

/bʌloʊnɪj/

no error

11. relish

/ɚɛlɪʃ/

no error

12. confusion

/kənfuʒən/

no error

H. Transcription Practice Transcribe the following two-syllable words using the IPA. 1. quicksand

21. bugle

2. slouched

22. chisel

3. jury

23. eunuch

4. acquaint

24. Charles

5. shoulder

25. belonging

6. slither

26. rubric

7. sergeant

27. unique

8. skewer

28. bequeathed

9. cordial

29. kayak

10. useful

30. billiards

11. withdrew

31. eyewash

12. worship

32. lingual

13. enshrined

33. quarreled

14. fumed

34. anguished

15. luncheon

35. outward

16. junior

36. rupture

17. unscathed

37. shoe wax

18. shrivel

38. quotient

19. Yankees

39. strangler

20. quarter

40. allure

Complete Assignment 5-5.

Chapter Five 151

ChapterSummary ■

■

Unlike vowels, consonants are produced by vocal tract constrictions that modify the breath stream coming from the larynx. Similar to vowels, the tongue is the major articulator in production of consonants, although there are several consonants in English that do not involve the tongue in their production (e.g.,/f/, /b/, and /h/). Also, all vowels are voiced; however, there are both voiced and voiceless consonants. Vowels form the nucleus of syllables, and consonants are found at the margins of syllables. Therefore, consonants can be classified as prevocalic when they precede a vowel, postvocalic when they follow a vowel, and intervocalic when a consonant occurs between two vowels. Consonants can be classified along three dimensions: manner, place, and voicing. Consonant manner refers to the way in which the airstream is modified during consonant production. The various manners in English include the stops, fricatives, affricates, nasals, glides, and liquids. Place of articulation refers to the specific articulators that are involved in production of the consonants. The various places of articulation in English include labial (lips), labiodental (lips and teeth), dental (teeth), alveolar (alveolar ridge), postalveolar

■

(back of the alveolar ridge and front of the palate), palatal (hard palate), velar (soft palate), and glottal (glottis). The tongue is involved in production of dental, alveolar, postalveolar, palatal, and velar consonants. Consonants that are produced with vibrating vocal folds (e.g.,/b/, /z/, and /l/) are termed voiced, and consonants that are produced without vocal fold vibration (e.g.,/p/, /s/, and /f/) are termed voiceless. There is a unique IPA symbol for each of the English consonants used when transcribing speech. These include the: stops (plosives)

/p, b, t, d, k, ɡ/

affricates

/tʃ, dʒ/

fricatives nasals

approximants: glides

liquids

/f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h/ /m, n, ŋ/ /j, w/ /l, ɹ/

(voiceless phonemes in bold)

ReviewExercises A. For the following words, determine whether a tap (ɾ), glottal stop (ʔ), or nasal plosion (np) is found in its transcription. Fill in the blank with the appropriate answer. If none of these are apparent in the transcription, leave the answer blank. 1. writin’ 2. rudder 3. about

6. certain 7. crater 8. winter

4. nutty 5. harden

9. Martin 10. sudden

B. Indicate with an “X” which of the following words or phrases have a syllabic consonant in their transcriptions.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

wheel written regal Seton Hall candles

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

pull contagious that’ll grab ’em by the neck hold ’er by the tail

C. For all of the consonant phonemes below, indicate their manner, place, and voicing. Example: /d/ /k/ /ɹ/

Manner

Place

Voicing

stop

alveolar

voiced

152 Consonants Manner

/θ/ /ŋ/ /dʒ/ /b/ /ʃ/ /j/ /f/ /n/

Place

Voicing

D. Create at least two minimal pairs for the underlined phoneme so that they match the differing features given. Example: pit

Differing Features mitt, wit

voice

manner

1. seed

voice

manner

3. some

place

2. cope 4. zip

5. bag

voice voice place

manner

place

manner

E. Each of the following pairs of words differ by one phoneme. Determine how the phonemes differ in terms of manner, place, and/or voicing. Then list the differing features for each pair given. Differing Features

Example: none-ton

voice, manner

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

sin-sing jaw-raw sue-shoe tin-tip clue-crew cop-mop choke-joke pet-met done-gun even-Eden Yale-rail late-lake fame-shame cat-cad pass-pad

Chapter Five 153

F. Identify the words that contain an affricate. If the word has an affricate, indicate the position in the word (prevocalic, postvocalic, or intervocalic) and whether the affricate is voiced or voiceless. Transcribed Affricate

Word

Example:

charm

1. jester

2. version 3. itchy 4. cash

5. switched 6. January 7. regime

8. mashing 9. crush

10. urgent

Voicing

Position in Word

/tʃ/voicelessprevocalic

G. Transcribe the underlined consonant allographs in the following words, and indicate the appropriate voicing, place, and manner of articulation. Transcribed Phoneme

Word

Example: cab

1. celery

2. breech 3. phase

4. wreck 5. call

6. method 7. yes

8. crude

9. chasm

10. edge

11. walk

12. cohesion

Voicing

Place

/k/ voiceless velar stop

H. Transcription Practice Transcribe the following words using the IPA. 1. birthmarks

5. George Bush

3. beachcomber

7. zinc oxide

2. conjuring

4. otherwise

Manner

6. Vatican

8. handkerchief

154 Consonants PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 5.1

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

9. expedite

25. charming

11. admitted

27. bothersome

29. enzyme

10. foundation 12. thereafter

13. injunction

14. convergence 15. sabotage

17. buttonhole

16. physician

18. discouraged 19. evolved

21. cosmos

20. indigent

22. chimpanzees 23. discarded

24. prestigious

26. Turkish bath 28. jackknife

30. tooth fairy 31. cherry pie 32. coauthor 33. hyacinth

34. enjoyment

35. pharmacist 36. unworthy 37. 100th

38. pasteurized 39. fidgety

40. Father’s Day

I. Transcription Practice

Transcribe the following words (containing three syllables) using the IPA.

PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 5.2

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

1. aorta

21. sequential

3. congealed

23. Thanksgiving

2. airliner

4. Caucasian 5. vocation 6. funeral

7. registered 8. yesterday

9. November

10. troublesome 11. upholstered 12. impudent

14. distribute

13. torrential

15. diaphragm 16. appetite

17. persevere

18. courageous 19. muscular 20. papyrus Complete Assignments 5-6 and 5-7.

22. portrayal

24. xylophone

26. pigeonhole

25. artichoke

27. Williamsburg 28. undergrowth 29. humorous

31. universe

30. weariness

32. ungathered 33. manuscript 34. obscurely 35. nucleus

36. quadrangle 37. harmonize 38. registrar

39. parboiled

40. structural

Chapter Five 155

StudyQuestions 1. What is a consonant? How do vowels and consonants differ? 2. Define the terms sonorant and obstruent. 3. Define the terms manner, place, and voicing. 4. Distinguish between prevocalic, postvocalic, and intervocalic consonants. 5. What is meant by the term nasal plosion? 6. What is a syllabic consonant? Which consonants can become syllabics in English? What are the rules that govern their usage? 7. When would you use a tap and a glottal stop in phonetic transcription? 8. Indicate the sound source for each of the following: vowels, stops, nasals, fricatives, affricates, and approximants. 9. Describe the actual ways in which the following consonant manners are produced: stops, fricatives, nasals, affricates, and approximants.

OnlineResources Search online for Interactive Sagittal Section2.1. This website provides an interactive visual display of the vocal tract for each of the English consonants in terms of manner, place, and voicing. Search online for Sounds of Speech Iowa. This site provides facial view videos, audio samples, and animated diagrams of the articulators for all English consonants. Spanish and German modules also are available. The program is available for download from the App Store and Google Play for use on portable devices. Search online for the World Atlas of Language Structures Online. On the home page of the website, select “chapters” in the horizontal bar at the top of the page. In the chapter list, select Chapter1, “Consonant Inventories.” This chapter by Ian Maddieson provides information pertaining to consonant inventories in the phonology of over 500 world languages.

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Chapter Five 157

Assignment 5-1 Name Stop Consonant Transcription Transcribe the following two- and three-syllable words. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 5.3

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

1. deadbeat

26. agape

2. darker

27. go-cart

3. diode

28. goodbye

4. packing

29. bagpiper

5. Vicky

30. katydid

6. backup

31. operate

7. taboo

32. terrier

8. decoy

33. peapod

9. Cape Cod

34. boycotted

10. tugboat

35. period

11. bedbug

36. irrigate

12. bobcat

37. gaiety

13. decode

38. cataract

14. doted

39. gadabout

15. diaper

40. carpeting

16. buckeye

41. dedicate

17. dugout

42. barbaric

18. tiptoe

43. caterer

19. beaded

44. attitude

20. khaki

45. poetic

21. co-op

46. corrected

22. edit

47. biotic

23. dittoed

48. doorkeeper

24. tiptop

49. bugaboo

25. guidedog

50. corridor

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Chapter Five 159

Assignment 5-2 Name Stop and Nasal Consonant Transcription Transcribe the following two- and three-syllable words. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 5.4

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

1. minute

26. animate

2. windbag

27. enduring

3. cranky

28. Canada

4. mustard

29. incarnate

5. coyness

30. ionic

6. downtime

31. entire

7. condone

32. cantata

8. bookmark

33. torpedoed

9. tune-up

34. mitigate

10. benign

35. pinto bean

11. magnet

36. piranha

12. bunker

37. bandana

13. curtain

38. motorcade

14. negate

39. Montana

15. omit

40. dignity

16. kidney

41. myopic

17. pontoon

42. commando

18. mundane

43. accountant

19. coward

44. pyramid

20. pointing

45. binary

21. inert

46. nominate

22. command

47. mnemonic

23. bumpkin

48. dogmatic

24. airman

49. interrupt

25. tenant

50. gabardine

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Chapter Five 161

Assignment 5-3 Name Stop, Nasal, and Fricative Consonant Transcription Transcribe the following three- and four-syllable words. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 5.5

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

1. succinctness

26. seventeenth

2. Alzheimer’s

27. thereabouts

3. ambition

28. homeopath

4. commercial

29. understanding

5. unsanctioned

30. uncertainty

6. decomposed

31. vaporizer

7. visionary

32. thermometer

8. cathartic

33. subconsciousness

9. admonish

34. sarcophagus

10. systemic

35. reservation

11. ombudsman

36. orthodontist

12. redemption

37. perversity

13. Zambia

38. subdivision

14. schematic

39. weatherbeaten

15. horrific

40. unconvincing

16. aversion

41. chauvinism

17. vehemence

42. innovative

18. Venetian

43. impersonate

19. thoroughfare

44. heterodyne

20. orthodox

45. catechism

21. zucchini

46. extortionist

22. xenophobe

47. disorganized

23. fluorescent

48. incandescence

24. excavate

49. criticism

25. symphonic

50. conversation

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Chapter Five 163

Assignment 5-4 Name Stop, Nasal, Fricative, and Affricate Consonant Transcription Transcribe the following three- and four-syllable words. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 5.6

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

1. repackaged

26. affectionate

2. compassion

27. contortionist

3. digestive

28. menagerie

4. confiscate

29. moisturizing

5. injury

30. notorious

6. membranous

31. pessimistic

7. Egyptian

32. North Dakota

8. geosphere

33. unimportant

9. foundation

34. terrifying

10. intersperse

35. punctuation

11. maturate

36. potassium

12. exertion

37. jurisdiction

13. effervesce

38. pedagogy

14. matchmaker

39. participant

15. chimpanzee

40. overshadow

16. astonish

41. homogenized

17. gestation

42. indigestion

18. omniscient

43. damaged goods

19. amateur

44. thundershower

20. chastisement

45. graduation

21. advantaged

46. juxtaposing

22. pasteurized

47. photogenic

23. x-axis

48. designation

24. disparage

49. sandwiches

25. educate

50. pathologies

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Chapter Five 165

Assignment 5-5 Name Stop, Nasal, Fricative, Affricate, Glide, and Liquid Consonant Transcription Transcribe the following three- and four-syllable words. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 5.7

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

1. quietly

26. glorified

2. wondrous

27. flamboyant

3. Hercules

28. chromium

4. cultural

29. extrapolate

5. koala

30. employee

6. rebellious

31. legalized

7. quantify

32. delinquency

8. subsequent

33. accumulate

9. withering

34. chlorinated

10. aquarium

35. Asiatic

11. inquiry

36. ballerina

12. curious

37. quagmire

13. worldly

38. inflammable

14. strategy

39. legislation

15. pressurized

40. futuristic

16. puberty

41. burglarize

17. symbolic

42. slovenly

18. refusal

43. nonchalant

19. wonderfully

44. liquidate

20. journalism

45. infuriate

21. disgruntled

46. bureaucracy

22. visualize

47. exquisitely

23. Yosemite

48. acquittal

24. malicious

49. bulimia

25. illustrious

50. ridicule

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Chapter Five 167

Assignment 5-6 Name Transcribe the following geographical locations in IPA. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 5.8

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

1. Bowling Green, Kentucky

2. Wheeling, West Virginia

3. Albuquerque, New Mexico

4. Tallahassee, Florida

5. Chattanooga, Tennessee

6. Joplin, Missouri

7. Honolulu, Hawaii

8. Anaheim, California

9. Thunder Bay, Ontario

10. Rochester, Minnesota

11. Prague, Czechoslovakia

12. Helsinki, Finland

13. Raleigh, North Carolina

14. Tijuana, Mexico

15. Omaha, Nebraska

16. Denton, Texas

17. Geneva, Switzerland

18. Istanbul, Turkey

19. Johannesburg, South Africa

20. Hiroshima, Japan

21. Antwerp, Belgium

22. Montreal, Quebec

23. Boise, Idaho

24. Boston, Massachusetts

25. Stockholm, Sweden

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Chapter Five 169

Assignment 5-7 Name Transcribe the following. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 5.9

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

1. curious savage

2. transmission fluid

3. terrible twos

4. lightning ’n’ thunder

5. persuasive argument

6. apparent dilemma

7. algebra equation

8. legal document

9. implausible idea

10. perplexed child

11. veritable fortune

12. grapefruit juice

13. watermelon rind

14. Wuthering Heights

15. torrential downpour

16. Scranton, PA

17. very tranquil

18. butterscotch pudding

19. patchwork quilts

20. oxygen cycle

21. anxious parent

22. earthquake rumble

23. pasteurized milk

24. privileged character

25. punitive damages

26. pharyngeal inflammation

Chapter 6

Acoustic Characteristics of Vowels and Consonants Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you will be able to: 6.1 Define the three major physical parameters used to describe

the acoustic characteristics of any sound—time, frequency, and intensity—and be able to describe how these parameters are displayed on a spectrogram.

6.2 Describe the acoustic characteristics of vowels and diphthongs,

including how they are displayed spectrographically.

6.3 Describe the acoustic characteristics of consonants, and discuss

how they are displayed spectrographically.

6.4 Relate the study of speech acoustics to clinical practice. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce you to the acoustic characteristics associated with speech sound production.In Chapters4 and 5, you learned about production of consonants and vowels and how to transcribe them using the IPA. The focus of those chapters was on speech production from an articulatory point of view. Little information was provided in relation to the acoustic information associated with each vowel and consonant. Each phoneme has a unique acoustic characteristic in terms of its perceived pitch, intensity, and duration. These acoustic differences help explain why one phoneme sounds completely different from any other phoneme. In other words, it is the acoustic specifications of individual speech sounds that alert a listener to the differences between individual consonants, between a consonant and a vowel, and between individual words and sentences.

Chapter Six 171

Time, Frequency, andIntensity

Learning Objective 6.1 Define the three major physical parameters used to describe the acoustic characteristics of any sound—time, frequency, and intensity—and be able to describe how these parameters are displayed on a spectrogram.

In acoustics, three major physical parameters are used to describe the acoustic characteristic of any sound, including speech sounds. These three parameters are time, frequency, and intensity. The measurement of time in acoustics simply refers to the duration of any particular sound. Time is usually recorded in milliseconds (msec) but also may be recorded in seconds (sec; 1 sec = 1000 msec). The frequency of a sound can be defined as the number of cycles a vibrating body completes in 1 second. Recall that in males, the vocal folds open and close approximately 125times per second. Therefore, we can say that the fundamental frequency (f 0) of the average male larynx is 125 cycles per second, or 125 Hertz (Hz) (named after Heinrich Hertz, a famous German physicist). Similarly, the tines of a 500-Hz tuning fork vibrate back and forth 500 cycles per second. Hz, as opposed to cycles per second, is more commonly used in speech and hearing science to represent the frequency characteristic of a sound. Acoustically, each phoneme of a language has unique frequency information associated with it, due not only to the movement of the vocal folds (f 0) but also to the resonances of the vocal tract associated with that phoneme. Frequency is perceived in terms of pitch. There is a direct relationship between frequency and pitch; as the frequency of a sound increases, so does its perceived pitch. Intensity refers to the amplitude (magnitude) of energy associated with a particular sound. The greater the energy associated with a particular auditory event, the greater its intensity. As an example, clap your hands together. Now clap them more forcefully. In both cases you created a disturbance (movement) of air molecules on and surrounding your hands. The disturbance of air molecules was less when you lightly brought your hands together than when you clapped more forcefully. That is, the disturbance created a greater movement of air molecules when you clapped harder. The greater the movement of air molecules, the greater the energy expended, and the greater the intensity generated. Similarly, when a whisper escapes the lips, a disturbance of air molecules will result, creating a sound wave that will reach the listener’s ear. The amplitude of the wave related to this disturbance in the air molecules would be appreciably less than the amplitude of a sound wave consistent with yelling. Typically, intensity is recorded in decibels (dB); however, other units of measurement also may be used (e.g.,watts/meter 2). Intensity is perceived in terms of loudness. Similar to frequency and pitch, there is a direct relationship between intensity and loudness; as the intensity of a sound increases, so does its loudness. In terms of the intensity of all English phonemes, the vowels and diphthongs are generally greater in intensity than the consonants. This is mainly because of the greater amplitude of acoustic energy associated with the resonance of the vocal tract during their production, when compared to consonants. This is due to the fact that the sound source is entirely from the vocal folds, and the vocal tract is fairly open with no major constriction. The least intense vowel, /i/, is greater in intensity than /ɹ/, the consonant with the greatest intensity. Next to vowels, sonorants have the greatest intensity, followed by the obstruents. The phoneme with the greatest acoustic energy, the vowel /ɔ/, is approximately 680times more powerful than the voiceless fricative /θ/, the phoneme with the least acoustic energy (Fletcher, 1953). The difference in decibels between these two phonemes is approximately 28 dB. Keep in mind that these are average intensity values; the intensity of individual phonemes in conversational speech varies considerably from utterance to utterance, from speaker to speaker, and from conversation to conversation. The intensity of conversational speech also varies depending on whether a person is whispering (45 dB), speaking at a conversational level (65 dB), or talking loudly (85 dB) (Fletcher, 1953).

172 Acoustic Characteristics of Vowels and Consonants

Figure 6.1 Speech waveform (a) and intensity contour (b) of the word“attack.” /t/

/æ/

/k/

Intensity (dB)

Amplitude

0 −

Time (msec)

/t/

/æ/

/k/

80 60 40 20 0

Time (msec)

A waveform is a graphic representation of sound that displays time on the abscissa or x-axis, and intensity (amplitude) on the ordinate or y-axis. The waveform in Figure6.1a displays a waveform of the word “attack” /ətæk/. The phonetic transcription has been provided to help you identify the individual phonemes. You already know that when sound occurs, there is a disturbance in the air causing movement of air particles. The positive and negative fluctuations in the waveform given in Figure6.1a simply reflect the back-and-forth movement of air particles during sound production. Upon examination of the waveform, you should be able to see the differentiation of the four individual phonemes (corresponding to the phonetic symbols displayed directly above). You should have no trouble seeing that /æ/ has the greatest amplitude of all the phonemes in the word. This is because it is a stressed vowel due to stress on the second syllable. Also notice that /ə/ has a greater amplitude than either of the two voiceless stops, even though it is in an unstressed syllable. Figure6.1b is a line drawing, called an intensity contour, that is derived from the waveform in Figure6.1a. The contour shows the average intensity of the speech waveform at each moment in time from the beginning of the word until the end of the word. Notice that the x-axis still represents time; however, the y-axis is now labeled in decibels (dB). The average intensity of the four phonemes is 43 dB for /ə/, 37 dB for /t/, 51 dB for /æ/, and 34 dB for /k/. The intensity contour makes it easier to see that the vowels are more intense (in dB) than either of the consonants. When you compare all four phonemes, it becomes evident that there is a 17-dB variation in intensity among the four phonemes. This is a good example of how much the intensity of speech varies over time. In regard to duration, vowels and diphthongs are generally longer than most consonants in any particular syllable. In Figure6.1a, you can see that the two vowels are longer in duration than either /t/ or /k/. The actual length of any vowel or consonant phoneme is quite variable; phoneme length varies in relation to (1) whether the phoneme occurs in a stressed syllable, (2) the phonemic context (the other vowels and consonants that surround a particular phoneme in a word), and (3) the importance of the meaning of a word in an utterance that contains the phoneme. The speech waveform gives essential information related to the amplitude of speech over time. However, it is not possible to examine individual phonemes in terms of their frequency composition. Spectrograms are employed for just this purpose. A spectrogram is a graphic representation of all three major physical parameters of sound: time, frequency, and intensity. Figure6.2 shows individual spectrograms of the minimal pair “heed” /hid/ and “who’d” /hud/. Each of the spectrograms in Figure 6.2 is labeled phonetically at the top so that you can identify each phoneme with its corresponding acoustic representation. Similar to a waveform, time is indicated on the abscissa. The time it took the speaker to produce these two words is approximately 600 msec (0.6 sec). You can readily see that the vowel is longer in duration than the consonants in both spectrograms.

Chapter Six 173

Figure 6.2 Spectrograms of the words /hid/ and/hud/. 5000

Frequency (Hz)

4000 3000

2000 F2

1000 0

F1 0

Time(s)

0.5924

Time(s)

0.6185

On a spectrogram, frequency is indicated on the ordinate. You can see that the phonemes /h/ and /d/ have frequency tracings that cover a wide range of frequencies. This can be seen by examining the vertical marks that extend over a range of almost 5000 Hz from the bottom to the top of each spectrogram. Variations in intensity are indicated on a spectrogram as gradients in shading; sounds of greater intensity are darker than sounds of lesser intensity. Looking at Figure6.2, you can see that the vowels /i/ and /u/ are greater in intensity (darker shading) than the consonants /h/ and /d/. Spectrograms also provide evidence of voicing (i.e.,vocal fold vibration during speech production). Look carefully at the vowels in the middle portion of each spectrogram. There are vertical striations that run from very low frequency to around 4000 Hz. These striations also can be seen in production of the consonant /d/. Each striation represents one abduction/adduction cycle of the vocal folds during production of voiced speech sounds. In the case of the /i/ vowel for this speaker, each striation occurs every 8 msec (0.008 sec). The time it takes a vibrating body to complete one cycle is called its period. Therefore, the period of vocal fold vibration in this case is 0.008sec. The formula f = 1/T is used to convert period to frequency (where T stands for time and f stands for frequency in Hz). Conversely, the formula T = 1/f is used to convert frequency to period. For the speaker displayed in Figure6.2, the fundamental frequency (basic rate of vibration) of the vocal folds is 125 Hz ( f = 1/0.008). In the next sections, we will look more closely at how time, frequency, and intensity cues help characterize all of the English phonemes. We will first look at the acoustic characteristics of vowels and diphthongs and then turn our attention to consonants.

Exercise 6.1 1. Is the speaker in Figure6.2 male or female?(Hint: You may need to refer back to Chapter3.) 2. If the period of vocal fold vibration during production of /u/ is 0.004 second, what is the fundamental frequency of the voice? 3. Your 4-year-old nephew has a fundamental frequency of 400 Hz. What is the period of vibration of his vocal folds?

174 Acoustic Characteristics of Vowels and Consonants

Acoustic Characteristics of Vowels andDiphthongs

Learning Objective 6.2 Describe the acoustic characteristics of vowels and diphthongs, including how they are displayed spectrographically.

It is easy to identify vowels on a spectrogram, due to not only their greater duration and intensity (when compared to consonants) but also to the dark horizontal bars indicated in each spectrogram (refer to Figure6.2). These dark bars are known as formants. Formants are resonant frequencies of the vocal tract. Recall in our earlier discussion of the production of the front vowels in the words bead, bid, bayed, bed, and bad(Chapter4), the tongue and lower jaw assume different positions for each vowel. Because the oral structures (including the shape of the pharynx) change during the production of each individual vowel, there is a corresponding change in the natural frequencies of vibration (resonances) of the vocal tract. Each vowel has a unique set of resonances or formant frequencies due to the specific positioning of the articulators necessary in production of each vowel. The formant pattern and accompanying resonance not only give each separate vowel a unique acoustic quality, they also provide acoustic cues to listeners so that each vowel can be recognized individually. The resonances of the vocal tract associated with vowel production contain primarily low-frequency energy (although higher than the fundamental frequency of the voice). The frequency array, or energy pattern, associated with any sound is called its spectrum. Therefore, vowels are considered to have low-frequency spectra and are perceived as being low in spectral pitch. The sonorant consonants (nasals, glides, and liquids) also are characterized as having low-frequency spectra and, therefore, are perceived as low-pitched phonemes. The obstruents (especially the fricatives) have spectra higher in frequency than the vowels and sonorant consonants and are perceived as having higher spectral pitch. This is due to the high frequency noise (turbulence) generally associated with obstruent production. It should now be obvious when examining the two spectrograms in Figure6.2 that the formant patterns associated with the two vowels are quite different because the shape of the vocal tract during their production is also different. The vowel /i/ is produced farther forward in the oral cavity, whereas the vowel /u/ is produced farther back in the oral cavity. The first three formants in Figure6.2 are numbered from F1 to F3 , starting with the formant that is the lowest in frequency. Generally, the higher-frequency formants are less intense than the lower-frequency formants. Examine the shading of the three formants of the vowel /u/ in /hud/. You will see that the shading (intensity) of F3 is considerably lighter when compared to the shading of F1 and F2 . There does not appear to be a difference in intensity between the three marked formants for the vowel /i/ in /hid/. This is only because the formants were artificially darkened so that they would show up better in print. Now, compare the second formant frequency of each vowel. Note how much higher in frequency the F2 of /i/ is when compared to /u/. Careful inspection shows that the second formant of /i/ is greater than 2000 Hz, whereas the second formant of /u/ is closer to 1000 Hz. Generally, front vowels (such as /i/) have higher second formants than do the back vowels (such as /u/). Keep in mind that vowels do have more than three formants. See if you can identify F4 for the vowels in both words in Figure6.2. For the purpose of speech perception, listeners need to perceive only the lower formants, specifically F1 ,F2 , and (sometimes) F3, in order to be able to recognize and distinguish all of the vowels in English (i.e., to be able to tell them apart). Table6.1 gives average values for the first two formants of 10 English vowels spoken by adult males. In Figure6.3, the formant values from Table6.1 are plotted with F1 on the ordinate and F2 on the abscissa. As you examine Figure6.3, you will immediately see its resemblance to the traditional vowel quadrilateral displayed in Figure6.4 (which is based on tongue height and advancement in production of vowels). The quadrilateral presented in Figure6.3 is based on acoustic information (the F1 and F2 patterns of vowels) and is a much more accurate representation of the actual vowel space than the traditional quadrilateral displayed in Figure6.4.

Chapter Six 175

TABLE 6.1 F1 and F2 Values (in Hz) for 10 Vowels, as Spoken by Adult MaleSpeakers. Vowels /i/

/ɪ/

/ɛ/

/æ/

/ɑ/

/ɔ/

/ʊ/

/u/

/ʌ/

/ɝ/

270

390

530

660

730

570

440

300

640

490

2290

1990

1840

1720

1090

840

1020

870

1190

1350

Source: Based on data from Peterson and Barney (1952).

In essence, then, the traditional vowel quadrilateral is only a schematic diagram of where the vowels roughly are located in the oral cavity during speech production. Given the similarities of Figures6.3 and 6.4, it appears there must be a relationship between tongue height, tongue advancement, and the formant values associated with each vowel. In fact, there are two rules that relate F1 and F2 to tongue height and tongue advancement, respectively: 1. F1 is inversely related to tongue height. That is, the higher the tongue is elevated during vowel production, the lower the value of F1. For example, the average F1 of /i/ (a high vowel) is 270 Hz, whereas the average F1 of /æ/ (a low vowel) is 660 Hz. 2. F2 is directly related to tongue advancement. The more fronted the tongue placement during vowel production, the higher the value of F2 . For example, the average F2 for the front vowel /i/ is 2290 Hz, whereas the average F2 for the back vowel /u/ is 870 Hz. Compare tongue placement for the vowels represented in the two quadrilaterals (Figures6.3 and 6.4) with the F1 and F2 rules, as well as the formant values given in Table6.1, to make sure you understand the relationship between place of articulation for vowels and the corresponding change in vocal tract resonance as indicated by the varying formant patterns. Keep in mind that formant values cited in Table6.1 are averages for a specific group of speakers. Like fundamental frequency(discussed in Chapter3), formant frequencies vary across speakers and are shaped by vocal tract anatomy, dialect, language experience, and other sociolinguistic factors (Clopper & Mccullough, 2021). The purpose of focusing on one specific group here is to illustrate the systematic relationship between tongue position and the two formants, which applies to all speakers.

Figure 6.3 Plot of average male F1 and F2 values (in Hz) for 10 American Englishvowels.

F2 (Hz) 2100

1800

1500

1200

900

600

/u/

/i/ /ɪ/

500 /ɔ/

/æ/

300 400

/ʊ/

/ɝ/

/ɛ/

200

/ᴧ/ /a/

600 700 800

F1 (Hz)

2400

176 Acoustic Characteristics of Vowels and Consonants

Figure 6.4 The traditional vowel quadrilateral showing tongue height and tongueadvancement.

Front High

Central

Back

e Mid

ə ɛ æ

Low

ᴧ

u о ɔ a

Exercise 6.2 Using Table6.1 as your guide, write the formant values in the blanks for the vowels given. How do these values relate to the F1 and F2 rules given previously? You may want to refer to Figure6.4 to help you answer this question.

Tongue Height F1

/i/ /ɪ/ /ɛ/ /æ/

Tongue Advancement /u/ /ʊ/ /ɔ/ /ɑ/

/i/ /ɪ/ /ɛ/ /æ/

/u/ /ʊ/ /ɔ/ /ɑ/

Front Vowels

Figure6.5 shows spectrograms of the words “heed,” “hid,” “hayed,” “head,” and “had.” Each word contains one of the five front vowels in the same phonetic context (i.e.,/h_d/). Inspection of the spectrograms helps demonstrate the F1 and F2 formant rules discussed previously. Note the general increase in the frequency of the first formant for each of the vowels as the tongue lowers from production of /i/ in “heed” to /æ/ in “had.” The change in F1 is most evident when directly comparing the vowels in “heed” and “had.” Now compare F2 in the words “heed” and “had.” Note the fact that F2 lowers in frequency as the tongue lowers in production from “heed” to “had.” This is due to the fact that the tongue systematically moves from front to back as the tongue lowers in production of the front vowels (refer to Figures6.3 and 6.4). Obviously, then, each front vowel has a distinct resonance pattern linked to changes in vocal tract shape consistent with each vowel’s articulation.

Figure 6.5 Spectrograms of the five front vowels in /h_d/context. “hid”

“hayed”

Frequency (Hz)

“heed”

Time (msec)

“head”

“had”

Chapter Six 177

Back Vowels

Figure 6.6 shows spectrograms of the five back vowels in /h_d/ context. Examine the acoustic characteristics of the five vowels, paying attention to changes in the formant patterns as the tongue lowers in production of the five back vowels. As predicted by the F1 rule, as the tongue lowers in production from /u/ to /ɑ/, the frequency of F1 rises. The second formant frequency is quite similar at the onset of each of the five vowels. This is because the back vowels are fairly consistent in terms of tongue advancement; they do not change as much in the front/back dimension as do the front vowels. Note, however, that the second formant rises throughout the production of each of the vowels. This is because each vowel begins with the tongue toward the back of the oral cavity (in the velar region) for its production. Then the tongue moves forward toward the alveolar ridge for production of /d/ at the end of each word. This dynamic change in the frequency of the formant from vowel to following consonant is known as a formant transition. The formant transition helps demonstrate how changes in tongue position alter the resonance of the vocal tract. Also, the formant transition is an acoustic cue that identifies the place of articulation of the postvocalic consonant (/d/ in this case). Formant transitions also occur between prevocalic consonants and vowels. More will be said about formant transitions in the section on stop consonants.

Figure 6.6 Spectrograms of the five back vowels in/h_d/ context. “hood”

“hoed”

“hawed”

“hod”

Frequency (Hz)

“who’d”

Time (msec)

Exercise 6.3 Spectrograms a and b are of the words “dean” and “don.” Which is which? How did you come to your conclusion? 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0

178 Acoustic Characteristics of Vowels and Consonants

Diphthongs

/eɪ/ and/oʊ/ Recall that there are two variants of the mid front vowel (/eɪ/ or /e/) and the mid back vowel (/oʊ/ or /o/). The diphthongs /eɪ/ and /oʊ/ were differentiated from the monophthongs /e/ and /o/ by their use in stressed syllables and at the end of words. Figure6.7 demonstrates the effect of syllabic stress on the production of both the diphthong /eɪ/ and the vowel /e/ in the words “away” /əˈweɪ/ and “Beijing” /beˈʒɪŋ/, respectively. Note that both words have second-syllable stress. The vowel in the first syllable of “Beijing” is transcribed with /e/ because the syllable is unstressed. The second syllable in “away” contains the diphthong /eɪ/ because it is a stressed syllable. Note the difference in the duration of these two vowels as indicated by the length of the horizontal arrows in Figure6.7. The duration of /eɪ/ is 405 msec, whereas the duration of /e/ is only 226 msec. It is clear that stressed vowels are lengthened when compared to unstressed vowels. The diphthong in “away” is also lengthened due to the fact that it is in the final position of the word.

Figure 6.7 Spectrograms of the words “away” /əweɪ/ and “Beijing” /beʒɪŋ/. “away”

“Beijing”

Frequency (Hz)

5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0

405 msec

eɪ

226 msec

Figure6.7 indicates that the F2 of the onglide of /eɪ/ begins at approximately 1000 Hz and rises to an offglide frequency greater than 2000 Hz. Also, consistent with the F1 rule, note how the frequency of F1 decreases over the length of the diphthong as the tongue rises from /e/ to /ɪ/. Figure6.8 illustrates the effect of syllabic stress not only on the duration of the diphthong /oʊ/ and the monophthong /o/ but also on the length of the entire syllables in which they are located. Figure6.8 shows spectrograms of the words “probate” and “protest.” Note that each word begins with the same phonetic string, that is, /pɹo(ʊ)/. The first syllable is stressed in the word “PRObate”/ˈpɹoʊbet/, and the second syllable is stressed in the word “proTEST” /pɹoˈtɛst/. Note the difference in the duration of these two syllables as indicated by the length of the horizontal arrows. The duration of /pɹoʊ/ in the word “probate” (approximately 292 msec) is almost double the length of the syllable /pɹo/ in “protest” (approximately 156 msec). Although it is not immediately obvious from the spectrograms in Figure 6.8, the diphthong also is lengthened in the stressed syllable /pɹoʊ/ compared to the vowel in the unstressed syllable /pɹo/. The actual duration of /oʊ/ in “probate” is approximately 129 msec, whereas the duration of /o/ in “protest” is approximately 76 msec. In either case, the vowel comprises almost 50percent of the syllable.

Chapter Six 179

Figure 6.8 Spectrograms of the words “probate” /pɹoʊbet/ and “protest” /pɹotɛst/.

“ PRObate”

“proTEST”

Frequency (Hz)

5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0

292 msec p

ɹ oʊ

156 msec b

p ɹ o

/ɔɪ, aɪ, andaʊ/ The spectrogram of the words “boy” /bɔɪ/, “buy” /baɪ/, and “bough” /baʊ/ can be seen in Figure6.9. Note that F2 rises between the onglide and offglide of the diphthong in production of the words “boy” and “buy.” This is predictable from the F2 rule because the tongue moves forward in the oral cavity as the tongue glides from /ɔ/ to /ɪ/ in “boy” /bɔɪ/ and from /a/ to /ɪ/ in “buy” /baɪ/ (refer to Figure6.9). The F2 of the diphthong /aʊ/ in “bough” /baʊ/ behaves somewhat differently due to the fact that the offglide is a back vowel. As the tongue moves toward the back of the oral cavity as it changes position from /a/ to /ʊ/, there is a corresponding decrease in the frequency of F2 , as would be predicted by the F2 rule.

Figure 6.9 Spectrograms of “boy” /bɔɪ/, “buy” /baɪ/, and “bough”/baʊ/.

Frequency (Hz)

“boy”

“buy”

“bough”

Time (msec) For all three diphthongs, there is not much separation in frequency between F1 and F2 from the beginning of the word throughout the onglide. However, F1 in /aɪ/ and /aʊ/ begins at a higher frequency than that seen in /ɔɪ/. The F1 rule can explain this difference because /ɔ/, the onset of /ɔɪ/, is produced higher in the oral cavity than the onset /a/ in the diphthongs /aɪ/ and /aʊ/.

Acoustic Characteristics ofConsonants

Learning Objective 6.3 Describe the acoustic characteristics of consonants, and discuss how they are displayed spectrographically.

Consonants and vowels are quite different, acoustically. Vowels are all voiced and produced with an unobstructed vocal tract. Vowel acoustics is based primarily

180 Acoustic Characteristics of Vowels and Consonants on resonances of the vocal tract as dictated by tongue position and jaw opening. As you know, consonant production is much more complicated than that, and therefore a description of consonant acoustics also becomes more complicated. As you might imagine, each consonant manner of production is quite dissimilar acoustically because each manner is quite distinct in terms of articulation. The quality of a stop consonant is nothing like a fricative, and neither of these has a quality anything like that of a glide since the time, intensity, and frequency cues are quite different for each manner of articulation. This has to do with differences in the nature of the sound source for each manner, how the airflow is modified, and also where the point of obstruction in the vocal tract occurs during speech sound production. For instance, the sound source for a voiceless stop is a brief noise burst created as the articulators release increased intraoral pressure from a point of constriction in the oral cavity formed at either the lips, alveolar ridge, or velum. The continuous noise associated with voiceless fricatives is generated when the airstream from the lungs is forced through a stricture at either the dental, labial, alveolar, palatal, or glottal places of articulation. The acoustic cues associated with these two very different noise sources are unique in terms of their acoustic specifications. Now add voicing to the equation, and the inclusion of a second sound source completely changes the acoustic structure of both stops and fricatives. The nasal consonants also have unique acoustic specifications unlike any of the oral consonants due to the inclusion of the nasal cavity as part of the vocal tract during their production. In the next section, the acoustic characteristics specific to each manner of production are discussed. The obstruents are discussed first, followed by the sonorants. Acoustic cues associated with voicing and place of articulation also are discussed along with each manner of production.

Obstruent Consonants

The key acoustic feature of the obstruent consonants is the noise source associated with their production. Also, obstruents have voiced and voiceless cognates, unlike the sonorant consonants. As you inspect the acoustic features of the stops, fricatives, and affricates, pay particular attention to the differences in the time, intensity, and frequency cues that make their individual productions distinct from one another. Stops Articulation of stop consonants is quite complex because of the way in which the airstream is modified during their production. Stops involve obstruction of the airstream, an increase in intraoral pressure, and a release burst. These articulatory maneuvers have associated acoustic events specific only to production of plosives. Figure6.10 displays spectrograms of the words “pay,” “bay,” “ape,” and “Abe.” The spectrograms are labeled phonetically to help you identify each of the phonemes in the words. During production of voiceless stops, a frictional noise follows the release burst of the stop, especially in the prevocalic position. This frictional noise is called aspiration. Aspiration is often defined as a burst of air associated with the production of voiceless stop consonants (Calvert, 1986; MacKay, 1987). This definition may be somewhat misleading because all stop consonants have a noise burst associated with their production. Aspiration involves the production of a frictional noise (similar to the glottal phoneme /h/) following the release of a voiceless stop and preceding the following vowel. There is, in a sense, a second type of noise associated with voiceless stops: Both voiced and voiceless stops are produced with a release burst (i.e.,noise generated at the place of articulation when the vocal tract closure is released), but only voiceless stops are produced with aspiration (i.e.,noise generated at the glottis after the vocal tract closure has been released) (Johnson, 2011). Keep in mind that aspiration occurs only in the presence of the voiceless stop consonants /p/, /t/, and /k/. Although there is an audible release burst associated with voiced stops, aspiration (the second frictional noise) is absent. Narrow transcription would indicate aspiration of a voiceless stop as a “raised” [ ʰ], as in “turn” [tʰɜ˞ n] and “pen” [pʰɛn]. The diacritic [ ʰ] indicates that aspiration, like the glottal consonant /h/, involves noise generated at the glottis.

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In Figure6.10a, “pay” [pʰeɪ], the stop /p/ begins with a hardly visible narrow spike of energy (stop release) followed by a long gray-shaded band that runs vertically up to 8000 Hz on the y-axis. This vertical band is a display of the aspiration that follows the release of the voiceless stop /p/ (indicated with a vertical arrow). Notice that in Figure6.10b, “bay” /beɪ/, there is no such gap (aspiration) between the release of the stop and the following vowel. This is because aspiration does not occur during production of voiced stops. It appears as though the vowel begins almost immediately following the release of the voiced stop /b/. Aspiration also may occur (depending on pronunciation) when a voiceless stop is in the coda position of a word. This can be observed with the release of /p/ in the word “ape” [eɪpʰ] (Figure6.10c). In Figure6.10d, what looks like aspiration following the release of /b/ in the word “Abe” /eɪb/ is actually a reflection of the way the speaker pronounced the word. The word was pronounced with the addition of schwa at the end of the word (i.e.,/eɪbə/). If you look at Figure6.10d, you will be able to visualize the formants of the /ə/ vowel.

Figure 6.10 Spectrograms of the words (a) “pay,” (b) “bay,” (c) “ape,” and (d)“Abe.” aspiration

8000

Frequency (Hz)

stop release

6400

8000

stop release

4800

6400 4800

3200

1600

8000

6400

4800

stop gap

3200 1600 0

4800 3200 1600

stop gap

voice bar

Time (msec) The time differential between the release of the stop burst and the onset of the voicing of the vowel (where the formants begin) is known as the voice onset time (VOT). VOT is a salient acoustic cue in differentiating voiced from voiceless stop consonants in syllable initial position. VOT has been studied extensively because it is widely used in the world’s languages (Cho etal., 2019). In Figure6.10a, the VOT for /p/ in “pay” is 86 msec. This measurement was taken between the stop release and the onset of voicing of the vowel (where the formants begin). As you can see, aspiration is occurring during this 86-msec time frame. Now examine Figure6.10b. The VOT for /b/ in “bay” is only 10 msec. Again, this measurement is the time difference between the stop release and the onset of voicing of the vowel. Voiceless consonants always have longer VOTs than voiced

182 Acoustic Characteristics of Vowels and Consonants consonants. The VOT value can vary depending on whether the stop is aspirated or not, and also by place of articulation—that is, whether the stop is bilabial, alveolar, or velar. Generally, the VOT associated with voiceless consonants ranges between 25 and 100 msec, whereas the VOT associated with voiced consonants is less than 20 msec. If the onset of voicing and the release burst occur at the same time, the VOT = 0 msec. If the onset of voicing occurs before the release burst, this is known as prevoicing, and the VOT would have a negative value. If VOT = 0 , or has a negative value, the stop would be perceived as being voiced. Another acoustic cue related to voicing of obstruents is vowel length preceding consonants in word-final position. Now, reexamine Figures6.10c and 6.10d. Pay particular attention to the length of /eɪ/ preceding either /p/ or /b/. What do you notice? It is clear that the vowel is longer in duration when it precedes /b/ (383 msec) than when it precedes /p/ (222 msec). Vowels are always longer when they precede voiced stops than when they precede voiceless stops at the end of a word. It may be counterintuitive that a distinction in consonants is indicated by a property of the vowel, but vowel length is in fact a salient cue for syllable-final voicing in many languages (Kluender etal., 1988). A stop gap is another defining characteristic of stop consonants that can be seen while viewing a spectrogram. Stop gaps precede the release of a stop and can be seen in Figure6.10c, “ape,” and Figure6.10d, “Abe.” The stop gap is a silent interval that reflects the actual time (in milliseconds) when oral pressure is building up in the oral cavity prior to the stop release. Notice that the stop gap preceding /p/ is longer in duration (159 msec) than the stop gap preceding /b/ (92 msec). Because intraoral pressure is greater for voiceless than for voiced stops, it takes more time to build up the necessary intraoral pressure to achieve greater pressure. Voiceless stops are perceived as being louder than voiced stops because of the greater acoustic energy that is released with the burst. During production of voiced stops, a low-frequency energy band occurs during the stop gap. This band of energy reflects vibration of the vocal folds during the period of the stop gap and is called a voice bar. A voice bar is present in the circled area of Figure6.10d, preceding the release of the /b/ in “Abe.” Contrast this with the absence of the voice bar during production of the voiceless stop /p/ in Figure6.10c. To summarize, there are several acoustic cues that signal the presence or absence of voicing during stop consonant production. These include VOT, vowel length preceding a final stop, and the presence of voice bars. In addition, voiceless stops are perceived as being louder than voiced stops due to increased intraoral pressure and a louder release burst.

Exercise 6.4 Select the correct stop(s) for the description given. VOT = 0 msec

/p/, /b/, /d/

perceived as being louder than the others

/t/, /d/, /ɡ/

VOT = −5 msec

/p/, /d/, /b/

VOT = +35 msec

/p/, /b/, /t/

stop gap preceding the release

/p/, /k/, /d/

longer vowel preceding the stop in coda position

/t/, /p/, /ɡ/

Ex.

/b/, /d/

Acoustic information related to place of articulation of the stop consonants can also be seen when looking at a spectrogram. Place of articulation cues are located in the formant transitions associated with the vowel either preceding or following

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the consonant. Figure6.11 shows spectrograms of the consonant–vowel (CV) syllables /bɑ/, /dɑ/, and /ɡɑ/. These syllables vary only by place of articulation of the consonant. These specialized spectrograms show mainly the vowel formants with most of the consonant information removed. You still can approximate where the stop burst is for each of the consonants. In these spectrograms, the formants have been highlighted with a series of dots that represent the average formant frequency value (in Hz) from the beginning to the end of each vowel. These dots make it easy to see the individual formants.

Figure 6.11 Formant transitions of the CV syllables /bɑ/, /dɑ/, and/ɡɑ/.

Formant frequency (Hz)

8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000

2000

F2 F1

1000 0

F3 F2

/bɑ/

/dɑ/

velar pinch /ɡɑ/

Notice that the F1 for all three stops is quite similar, indicating the stop manner of articulation. However, when you compare F2 and F3 between the three syllables, differences begin to emerge. First, look at the F2 of /bɑ/. The formant transition begins at a frequency lower than 1000 Hz and rises slightly above 1000 Hz by the end of the vowel. In other words, the formant is making a transition from the consonant to the following vowel in /bɑ/. During production of /dɑ/, the F2 transition begins close to 2000 Hz and then falls close to 1000 Hz for the remainder of the syllable. Now look at /ɡɑ/ (velar). The starting frequency of the formant transition associated with F2 looks fairly similar to that of /dɑ/ (close to 2000 Hz). To understand the difference between / dɑ/ and /ɡɑ/, you must consider the F3 transition as well. Notice that in /ɡɑ/, the F2 and F3 transitions begin very close together in frequency at the beginning of the syllable (near 2000 Hz). This closeness of F2 and F3 is known as the velar pinch and is associated only with velar stop consonant production. Note that there is over a 1000-Hz difference between the starting frequencies of the F2 and F3 transitions at the beginning of the syllable /dɑ/. Figure6.12 displays spectrograms of the vowel–consonant (VC) syllables “ebb” /ɛb/, “Ed” /ɛd/, and “egg” /ɛɡ/. When you examine the relationships of F1, F2 , and F3 among the three words, you should be able to see some patterns relating to place of articulation. In the word “ebb” (bilabial), the F2 transition begins around 2000 Hz and falls throughout production of the word, so that it ends at its lowest frequency with articulation of /b/. Recall that in the CV syllable /bɑ/, F2 also started at its lowest point with articulation of /b/, even though it was at the beginning of the word. In both cases, /b/ was associated with a low-frequency formant transition (close to 1000 Hz). In the word “Ed,” F2 drops only slightly from beginning to end and maintains a higher-frequency position (around 2000 Hz). Recall that in the CV syllable /dɑ/, F2 began close to 2000 Hz as well. Finally, for

184 Acoustic Characteristics of Vowels and Consonants

Figure 6.12 Formant transitions of the VC syllables “ebb” /ɛb/, “Ed” /ɛd/, and “egg”/ɛɡ/.

Formant frequency (Hz)

8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000

2000

1000 0

velar pinch

F1 / b/

/ ɡ/

/ d/

“egg,” the F1 and F2 transitions are similar to those seen for “Ed.” But when F3 is included, it is very easy to see the velar pinch at the end of the word, again indicating velar place of production. In both the CV /ɡɑ/ and the VC /ɛɡ/, the velar pinch is around 2000 Hz. In summary, place of articulation cues for stops can be seen in the formant transitions either preceding or following a vowel in the same syllable. Formant transitions serve as place of articulation cues for other consonant manners as well, including nasals and glides. F2 and F3 transition cues extend into frequencies greater than 1000 Hz (refer to Figures6.11 and 6.12). It follows that place of articulation cues may be difficult for hearing-impaired individuals to hear, especially if their hearing loss extends to frequencies above 1000 Hz. This would result in perceptual confusions of minimal pairs such as “tone” and “cone” that differ only by place of articulation.

Exercise 6.5 The following spectrograms are of the words “pad,” “bead,” and “bad.” Write the appropriate choice in the blank given below each spectrogram. What information did you use to make your decision? 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0

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Fricatives Figure6.13 shows waveforms and spectrograms of the words “shot” /ʃɔt/, “sought” /sɔt/, “fought” /fɔt/, and “thought” /θɔt/. You will immediately see that the fricatives look nothing like the spectrograms of stops. Note that fricatives appear as wide bands of energy (in terms of duration) that cover a wide range of frequencies. These wide bands of energy visually depict the turbulence created by forcing the breath stream through a narrow channel in the oral cavity. Unlike stops, the noise in fricatives is continuous. That is, it is possible to prolong the production of a fricative; it is not possible to prolong the production of a stop.

Figure 6.13 Spectrograms and waveforms of the words “shot” /ʃɔt/, “sought” /sɔt/, “fought” /fɔt/, and “thought”/θɔt/. ʃ

7000 Hz 5000 Hz 3000 Hz 1000 Hz sibilants

non-sibilants

The forcing of the breath stream through the constriction generally results in production of phonemes that have high frequency spectra. The turbulent sound associated with fricatives sounds something like white noise because fricatives contain random energy that spans a wide range of frequencies. When compared to other consonants, fricatives are among the highest-frequency phonemes. As displayed in Figure6.13, the primary spectral energy for /ʃ/ (where the shading is the darkest) is between approximately 1700 and 5300 Hz. (It is evident that /ʃ/ does have additional resonance that extends up through 8000 Hz even though it is not as intense.) Now compare the primary resonant frequencies of /ʃ/ with /s/. The fricative /s/ has primary spectral energy at frequencies even higher than /ʃ/, that is, between 4600 and 9400 Hz. (The frequency limit was set at 8000 Hz when creating the spectrograms.) The frequency spectrum of the individual fricatives is dictated by the location of the constriction in the vocal tract during their production (i.e.,the place of production). The larger the cavity in front of the constriction, the lower the frequency spectrum of the fricative. Among all of the fricatives, the glottal /h/ has the largest cavity in front of the constriction and consequently has the lowestfrequency spectrum. Conversely, /f/ and /v/, the labiodental fricatives, have the smallest cavity in front of the constriction and therefore have the highestfrequency spectra associated with them. During production of fricatives, as the constriction in the oral cavity moves forward, the resonant frequencies of the frictional noise increase accordingly. It then follows that /s/ (alveolar place of production) would have higher-frequency resonance than /ʃ/ (postalveolar place of production).

186 Acoustic Characteristics of Vowels and Consonants In the spectrogram in Figure 6.13, the frequency range for the labiodental fricative /f/ can be seen as a very light, thin band that occurs over a wide range of frequencies extending from close to 100 Hz up to almost 10,000 Hz (indicated with a dashed arrow). (The uppermost frequency range cannot be seen because the frequency limit was set at 8000 Hz when creating the spectrogram.) It is not surprising that /f/ has such high frequency components because it is the most fronted of all the fricatives and has the smallest cavity in front of the constriction formed by the articulators. Notice how much less in intensity /f/ is when compared to /s/ and /ʃ/. However, the frequency components of the interdental fricative /θ/ can barely be seen when viewing the spectrogram in Figure6.13. This is because of its very low intensity. Recall that /θ/ is the least intense of all the English phonemes. The fricatives can be divided into two groups based on their intensity characteristics. The fricatives /s, z, ʃ, ʒ/ are the most intense of all the fricatives and are known collectively as sibilants. The non-sibilant fricatives include /θ, ð, f, v, and h/. Because of their greater intensity, the sibilants are perceived as being louder than the non-sibilants. The waveforms in Figure6.13 confirm what you already know: the two sibilants /ʃ/ and /s/ show increased intensity when compared to the two non-sibilants /f/ and /θ/. Among the sibilants, /ʃ/ has greater intensity than /s/. In regard to the non-sibilants, it is possible to see a very slight peak in the amplitude of the waveform for /f/ in “fought,” just prior to the onset of voicing for the vowel /ɔ/ (indicated by the solid arrow). Similar to the spectrogram, it is not possible to visualize much of the acoustic energy associated with the production of /θ/ in the waveform. As mentioned, voiceless fricatives have greater airflow through the constriction during their production when compared to voiced fricatives. Therefore, voiceless fricatives (especially the sibilants) appear darker on a spectrogram than voiced fricatives due to their greater intensity. Compare the two spectrograms of the words “leash” and “liege” in Figure6.14. You can see by the darkness of the shading that /ʃ/ in “leash” is greater in intensity than /ʒ/ in “liege,” especially in the higher frequencies.

Figure 6.14 Spectrograms of the words “leash” /liʃ/ and “liege”/liʒ/.

Frequency (Hz)

104

leash

liege Vertical striations

8000

Less intense

6000 4000 2000 0

Time (msec) It is not difficult to distinguish voiced from voiceless fricatives when viewing a spectrogram. This is because during production of voiced fricatives, it sometimes is possible to identify the vertical striations (consistent with vocal fold pulsing) throughout the period of noise. Observe the spectrogram of the fricatives /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ in Figure6.14. You should be able to see evidence of vocal fold vibration during production of /ʒ/ in “liege” but not during the production of /ʃ/ in “leash” since

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/ʃ/ is voiceless. Recall that vowels preceding voiced consonants are longer than those preceding voiceless consonants. Figure6.14 demonstrates this phenomenon with fricatives. When comparing “leash” and “liege,” it is clear that /i/ is longer when it precedes /ʒ/ than when it precedes /ʃ/.The difference is analogous to the vowel length difference we saw earlier in the discussion of syllable-final stops. Individuals with hearing loss often have difficulty perceiving fricatives in words due to their high-frequency spectra. This is especially true if the hearing loss extends to the higher frequencies. Also, because the non-sibilant fricatives lack intensity (refer to Figure6.13), they may be especially difficult to hear. This would explain why individuals with hearing impairment have difficulty being able to tell the difference between minimal pairs such as “thin” /θɪn/ and “fin” /fɪn/ and “elf” /ɛlf/ and “else” /ɛls/. Affricates Figure6.15 shows spectrograms of the two English affricates in the words “batch” /bætʃ/ and “badge” /bædʒ/. It should not be surprising that the acoustic cues for affricates include cues relating to both stop and fricative manners of production. First, note the expected presence of the stop gaps prior to the release of /t/ and /d/ in both words. Also, because the place of articulation is the same for the two affricates, their frequency spectra are similar. A major difference in the two spectrograms is the greater intensity of the fricative component associated with the voiceless affricate when compared to the voiced affricate. This is due to greater airflow through the constriction in the oral cavity during production of /ʃ/. Also, as expected, the spectrogram of the voiced affricate in “badge” shows a voice bar prior to production of /dʒ/. As with stops and fricatives, the vowel is lengthened preceding the voiced affricate /dʒ/ in “badge” when compared to the voiceless affricate /tʃ/ in “batch.”

Figure 6.15 Spectrograms of the words “batch” /bætʃ/ and “badge”/bædʒ/.

“batch”

“badge”

8000 less intense

6400 4800 3200

stop gap

1600 voice bar

Sonorant Consonants

The sonorant consonants are acoustically distinct from the obstruents in that they are produced with little constriction in the oral cavity and with continuous voicing, allowing for resonance throughout the entire vocal tract. As you read through the acoustic characteristics of the sonorants, you will notice they are strikingly similar to the vowels. That is, they have formant structure and are generally greater in intensity and longer in duration than the obstruents. As you examine the acoustic features of the nasals, glides, and liquids, pay attention to the characteristics that are unique to each individual manner.

188 Acoustic Characteristics of Vowels and Consonants Nasals Because airflow from the lungs is directed through the nasal port during nasal consonant production, resonance occurs in the nasal cavity as well as in the oral cavity and pharynx. In production of nasal consonants, the oral cavity can be considered a sidebranch of the vocal tract that now extends from the larynx to the nares. The size of the oral sidebranch decreases with the location of the constriction in the vocal tract from /m/ (bilabial) to /n/ (alveolar) to /ŋ/ (velar) (from anterior to posterior). Because the size of the oral cavity varies during production of the nasals, so does the resonance of the vocal tract during nasal consonant production. Due to the additional resonance provided by the nasal cavity, the nasal consonants have a sound quality quite different from the other phonemes in English. Figure6.16 shows spectrograms of the minimal pair “bay” /beɪ/ and “may” /meɪ/. The spectrograms allow you to contrast the differences in the production of a voiced bilabial nasal and a voiced bilabial stop. Examine the spectrogram of the word “may.” Notice that the consonant /m/ looks somewhat like a vowel in that it has identifiable formants, unlike the spectrograms of stops. Also note the durational difference between production of a stop versus production of a nasal consonant. When viewing spectrograms of nasal consonants, it is sometimes easy to see exactly where the nasal consonant begins or ends due to the abrupt shift in the resonance pattern of the vocal tract brought about by the constriction in the oral cavity and the lowering of the velum. In Figure6.16, the vertical arrow indicates the separation of the nasal consonant and the following vowel.

Figure 6.16 Spectrograms of “bay” /beɪ/ and “may”/meɪ/. 5000

Frequency (Hz)

4000 3000 2000 1000

Nasal formant

0 Time (msec) When comparing /beɪ/ and /meɪ/, you may have noticed the slope of the formant transitions for the two words were almost identical. This is because /b/ and /m/ are both bilabial sounds. In this case, the F2 transition rises from the consonant into the vowel, which is consistent with bilabial consonant production in CV words (refer to the spectrogram of /bɑ/ in Figure6.11). However, you may have noticed that the F2 transitions for /beɪ/ and /meɪ/ begin and end at higher frequencies than the F2 transition seen for the bilabial CV /bɑ/ shown in Figure6.11. For both /beɪ/ and /meɪ/, F2 increases in frequency from around 2000 to 2500 Hz, as the tongue rises from /e/ to /ɪ/. The formant transition for /bɑ/ begins and ends around 1000 Hz. Based on your knowledge of vowels and the F2 rule, this should make sense to you. The diphthong in /beɪ/ and /meɪ/ contains two front vowels, explaining the high frequency F2 for those words. On the other hand, the vowel /ɑ/ in /bɑ/ is a low back vowel, with a low F2 .

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When the velum lowers in production of a nasal consonant and the lips or tongue form an obstruction in the oral cavity, acoustic energy radiates outward through the nasal cavity. This acoustic radiation is known as nasal murmur. Nasal murmur is characterized by a series of formants. The first formant has the greatest energy and is comparable to the amplitude of vowel formants (Kent & Read, 2002). This first formant is called the nasal formant. The nasal formant generally appears on a spectrogram around 250 to 300 Hz for /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/. The nasal formant for /m/ in “may” is indicated in Figure6.16 with the right-pointing arrow. Note that the nasal formant is lower in frequency than the F1 of the vowel /eɪ/ in “may.” Now, compare the formants of /m/ and /eɪ/. Notice that the higher-frequency formants of the nasal murmur have considerably less amplitude (lighter shading) than those associated with vowel production. This is because when the velum lowers in production of a nasal phoneme, the vocal tract resonances become less intense due to absorption of sound energy in the nasal cavity. The reduction in the amplitude of energy (intensity) of a vibrating system, brought about by sound absorption, is known as damping. Damping explains only part of the reason why the higher formants associated with nasal murmur have less intensity. Recall that during production of a nasal consonant, the oral cavity is constricted or closed off (at either the lips for /m/, alveolar ridge for /n/, or velum for /ŋ/). No sound escapes through the oral cavity; instead, all sound is diverted to the nares. As the velum lowers, negative resonances are created in the vocal tract. The negative resonances are referred to as antiresonances or antiformants. An antiformant arises from changes in the resonance patterns of the oral cavity when it becomes a sidebranch of the vocal tract. Antiformants cause a general decrease in the intensity of the resonances of the vocal tract. Now compare the diphthong /eɪ/ in the two words “bay” and “may” (Figure6.16). It should be obvious that the formants of /eɪ/ in “may” appear markedly lighter than the formants of the same diphthong in the word “bay.” The decrease in intensity of the formants indicates that the diphthong /eɪ/ has become nasalized due to creation of antiformants as the velum is lowered during its production. The word “may” is transcribed as [me͠ɪ ] to indicate the diphthong has been nasalized due to the presence of the nasal consonant preceding it. The velum lowers in production of the three nasal consonants about 100 msec before the occlusion in the oral cavity begins, and it remains lowered for an additional 100 msec after the consonant has been produced. This leading and lagging of the lowered velum causes vowels occurring 100 msec before and 100 msec after the nasal consonant to become nasalized (Pickett, 1999). Therefore, antiformants of the vocal tract cause a decrease not only in the intensity of the formants of the nasal consonant itself but also in the formants of the vowel following it. Figure6.17 shows spectrograms of the minimal pair “nose” /noʊz/ and “doze” /doʊz/. Compare initial consonant production of the alveolar nasal /n/ and the alveolar stop /d/. The low-frequency nasal formant is easy to see at the beginning of the word “nose,” as is the stop release at the beginning of “doze.” You also can see the lighter shaded higher formants of the murmur (in the region of 1500 to 3000 Hz) associated with the /n/ in “nose.” Other than at word onset, the major difference in the two spectrograms is the effects of nasalization on the diphthong /oʊ/ in “nose” [no͠ʊz]. Notice that the first four formants have less intensity than those seen for “doze.” There is a significant decrease in intensity in the middle of the diphthong for F3 and F4. This is brought about by antiformants in the vocal tract during production of /n/. Also, note the almost complete absence of F5 due to antiresonances. The two spectrograms are similar in terms of vowel formant transitions because the only difference in the two words is the difference in manner of the initial consonant (nasal vs. stop). The second formant transition for /n/ and /d/ both fall from approximately 2000 Hz to around 1200 Hz at the onglide of /o/ of the diphthong, signaling alveolar place of articulation. In addition to formant transition cues, the acoustic structure of the nasal murmur itself also plays a role in perception of place of articulation of all nasal consonants (Kent & Read, 2002). That is, the acoustic specification of the three nasals is distinct, alerting listeners to their differing place of articulation.

190 Acoustic Characteristics of Vowels and Consonants

Figure 6.17 Spectrograms of the words “nose” /noʊz/ and “doze”/doʊz/. antiresonance

stop release

6000

Frequency (Hz)

4800

3600

F4 F3

2400

F2 1200

nasal formant

F1 n

oʊ

z d Time (msec)

oʊ

Exercise 6.6 The spectrograms below are of the words “ban,” “bat,” and “bash.” Write the appropriate choice in the blanks given below each spectrogram. 5000

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Approximants: Glides andLiquids Figure6.18 is a spectrogram of the glides /w/ and /j/ in the intervocalic position of the words “away” /əweɪ/ and “a yay” /əjeɪ/. Note the similarities in the two spectrograms. Because of their formant structure, the glides look very much like vowels or diphthongs, which explains why approximants are also called semivowels(see Chapter5). Nevertheless, glides generally are shorter in duration and less intense than vowels. The F1 of both glides appear very similar on the spectrograms in terms of their low-frequency specifications. However, the frequency specification of F2 for the two glides is quite different, reflecting the place of articulation associated with each.

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Figure 6.18 Spectrograms of the words “away” /əweɪ/ and “a yay”/əjeɪ/. a yay

away

5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0

/w/ has a low F2 . This is not surprising since /w/ has a velar place of articulation similar to the vowel /u/. Recall that because /u/ is a back vowel, it has a low F2 . On the other hand, the F2 for /j/ is high because its place of articulation (palatal) is similar to the front vowel /i/, which has a high F2 . You will see a difference in the higher formants as seen on the spectrograms for these two phonemes. F3 and F4 are both visible on the spectrogram during production of /j/. Note that F3 and F4 are not visible during production of /w/ (the noticeable white gap above F1 and F2). This is because the upper formants have much less acoustic energy than F1 and F2 . Figure6.18 shows a formant transition beginning around 500 Hz for the glide /w/ and rising to around 2000 Hz for production of /eɪ/. This rising transition pattern is consistent with production of other bilabial CV syllables (i.e.,“bay” and “may” in Figure6.16). On the other hand, the glide /j/ has a palatal place of articulation and shows an F2 transition falling in frequency from approximately 2500 Hz to around 2000 Hz during production of /eɪ/. This falling formant transition is similar to the pattern observed in the CV syllable /dɑ/ in Figure6.11. Even though /d/ is alveolar and /j/ is palatal, they both have a falling F2 transition pattern from the consonant into the following vowel. Formant transitions for stop consonants are shorter in duration (they occur more quickly) than transitions for glides (Kent & Read, 2002). Figure6.19 depicts spectrograms of the liquids /l/ and /ɹ/ in the intervocalic position of the words “allay” /əleɪ/ and “array” /əɹeɪ/. The duration of liquids and glides is fairly equivalent. Similar to glides, the liquids show identifiable formants (comparable to vowels), and they are shorter in duration and have less intensity than vowels. The frequency range of F1 is low for both liquids. F2 for /ɹ/ and /l/ also share similar F2 patterns. However, there is a major difference when comparing the F3 transitions for /ɹ/ and /l/. The F3 transition for /l/ remains fairly steady at a high frequency (around 2500 Hz), whereas the F3 transition for /ɹ/ begins at a frequency less than 1500 Hz and rises to around 2500 Hz for

Figure 6.19 Spectrograms of the words “allay” /əleɪ/ and “array” /əɹeɪ/. allay

5000

array

4000 3000 2000 1000 0

eɪ

192 Acoustic Characteristics of Vowels and Consonants production of the diphthong /eɪ/. This is due to the retroflex articulation of /ɹ/. The low-frequency F3 associated with production of /ɹ/ is a salient acoustic cue that distinguishes /ɹ/ from /l/. The lower-frequency F3 transition is also evident when /ɹ/ occurs in the initial position of words. Figure6.20 shows spectrograms of the words “red” /ɹɛd/ and “led” /lɛd/. The F3 transition associated with /l/ remains fairly stable around 2500 Hz, whereas the F3 transition for /ɹ/ begins at a frequency around 1600 Hz and rises to around 2800 Hz for production of /ɛ/.

Figure 6.20 F3 transitions in word-initial /ɹ/ and/l/. 5000

4000

3000

F3 2000

1000

Clinical Application

Learning Objective 6.4 Relate the study of speech acoustics to clinical practice.

Acoustic analysis of speech is useful in describing characteristics of individual speakers, helping to delineate differences in age and gender. If you had your eyes closed and were asked to judge the age and gender of several different speakers, it would be a pretty easy task. You already know that women have higher-pitched voices than men, and children have higher-pitched voices than women. The perceived inherent pitch of the voice is known as habitual pitch. The habitual pitch of the voice is actually determined by the speaking fundamental frequency (SFF), defined as the average fundamental frequency (f 0) of the voice during fluent speech production, that is,during conversation. When we say that a speaker has a SFF of 120 Hz, we are inferring that the average fundamental frequency of that person’s voice is 120 Hz. However, there are differences in frequency from cycle to cycle of vocal fold vibration. For example, one cycle of vibration could be 122 Hz, and the next cycle could be 118 Hz. This variation in Hz from cycle to cycle in the SFF of the voice is referred to as jitter. Similarly, there are cycle-to-cycle variations in the amplitude of the voice as a person phonates. The variation in amplitude of the voice is known as shimmer. Recall that the basic f 0 is around 220 Hz in women and around 120 Hz in men, due to the fact that the mass of a woman’s vocal folds is less than that of a man’s. Infants and children have an even higher f 0 and corresponding habitual pitch, due to their less massive vocal folds. Infants have an average f 0 of around 400–600 Hz, and young children have an average f 0 of around 270–300 Hz (Ferrand, 2018).

Chapter Six 193

As we age, our SFF changes as well. Evidence suggests that f 0 decreases in elderly men, most likely due to atrophy of the vocal fold tissue, causing a decrease in the mass of the vocal folds. The f 0 appears to increase in elderly women, most likely due to postmenopausal swelling of the vocal folds (Ferrand, 2018). More recently, information related to f 0 has been useful in the study of gender identification among transgender speakers. Following sex reassignment surgery, some male-to-female transgender speakers are still perceived as male, even after receiving hormone therapy, facial plastic surgery, electrolysis, and breast augmentation (Ferrand, 2018). It appears that in order for male-to-female transgender speakers to be perceived as female, f 0 needs to be greater than 156–160 Hz (Gelfer & Schofield, 2000; Wolfe etal., 1990). This information provides a goal for therapy for male-to-female transgender speakers who have a f 0 less than around 160 Hz. Wong’s (2017) study of female-to-male transgender voice shows that f 0 varies across different language contexts, time on testosterone, and self-perception of current voice. It should be noted that although f 0 is the primary acoustic indicator of speaker gender, other factors such as formant frequencies also affect gender identification (Hillenbrand & Clark, 2009). Acoustic analysis has been used to evaluate the effects of speech therapy on acoustic characteristics of transgender speech. For example, Leyns and colleagues (2023) show that the combination of pitch elevation training and articulation-resonance training increases both f 0 and formant frequencies. Teoh and Chin (2009) suggest that spectrographic analysis of speech is particularly useful when analyzing speech production in hearing-impaired children with cochlear implants. For instance, often it is difficult to actually hear certain phonetic contrasts when acoustic cues are at low volume levels. As an example, some children with hearing loss produce initial voiceless stop consonants without aspiration. This often appears to a listener as a voiced stop. Spectrographic analysis would more clearly indicate whether the stop was actually being produced as a voiced consonant or as an unaspirated consonant. Another example involves the production of a glottal stop instead of a stop or fricative at the end of a word. This type of production is sometimes seen in children with speech sound disorders, including those with hearing impairment. Even though a glottal stop is produced, it may appear to a listener as if the final consonant was deleted. Again, spectrographic analysis could assist in determining whether the final consonant was being replaced with a glottal stop or whether the final consonant was truly deleted. Another characteristic of hearing-impaired speech is vowel reduction in which vowels are produced more centrally in the oral cavity. For instance, substituting the lax vowel /ɪ/ for the tense vowel /i/ would result in a vowel that had a higher F1 and a lower F2 , with articulation of the vowel more toward the center of the oral cavity (Teoh & Chin, 2009). Spectrographic analysis of vowel formant values would help substantiate the process of vowel reduction.More will be said of vowel reduction in Chapter7 in relation to conversational speech. Spectrographic analysis also may be useful in individuals who demonstrate hypernasality (excessive nasal resonance). This condition occurs in cases of velopharyngeal incompetence, that is, when there is not a complete closure in the velopharynx (between the velum and the posterior wall of the pharynx). Hypernasality may occur in individuals with cleft palate, traumatic brain injury, or cerebral palsy. Hypernasality also may occur in individuals with normal velopharyngeal function due to incorrect modeling of the adult target. Recall that spectrographic analysis of nasalized vowels shows the presence of a low frequency nasal formant, decreases in the intensity of the higher vowel formants due to damping, and the presence of antiresonances (antiformants). Acoustic measures of speech also are quite useful in evaluation of individuals with neurological disease, such as Parkinson’s disease (PD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig’s disease. Individuals diagnosed with PD often speak at an accelerated rate (Kent & Read, 2002; Kim & Choi, 2017) and may display elevated f 0 and jitter, decreased vocal intensity, and decreased frequency variability (Gamboa etal., 1997; Goberman & Blomgren, 2006). In addition, speakers with PD may exhibit vowel reduction and decreases in voice onset time (when

194 Acoustic Characteristics of Vowels and Consonants comparing voiced to voiceless cognate pairs) in both American English and Korean speakers (Kim & Choi, 2017). Individuals diagnosed with ALS have been shown to have higher or lower than normal f 0 , increases in jitter and shimmer, and reduced frequency variability (Ferrand, 2018; Strand etal., 1994). According to Ferrand (2018), acoustic changes in speakers with ALS may be detected even when speakers’ voices may not yet sound pathological, assisting in early diagnosis of the disease. Acoustic analysis has also been useful in revealing covert contrasts in children’s speech. Covert contrasts are sound distinctions that are produced by children but are not heard by adult listeners. As a result, speech sounds that are produced differently by children are sometimes transcribed with the same phonetic symbol, which could lead to the incorrect conclusion that the sound contrast has been neutralized or has not been learned by children. Acoustic analysis and other instrumental techniques (e.g.,ultrasound) are useful in showing that children sometimes do produce acoustic or articulatory contrasts, even though such contrasts are not always recorded by transcribers (Gibbon & Lee, 2017).

Chapter Summary ■

■

Place of articulation is cued by formant transitions as the tongue trajectories change position from one phoneme to another. The various manners of production assist in identification of the consonants. Stop consonants have unique acoustic characteristics associated with them, including aspiration of voiceless stops, release bursts, voice onset time (which is longer for voiceless stops), stop gaps, and voice bars. Fricatives can be recognized on a spectrogram due to their wide vertical bands occurring in the higher frequencies. They are longer in duration than stops. Affricates include acoustic cues relating to both stop and fricative manners. Nasal consonants are produced by a lowering of the velum, causing the oral cavity to be a side branch of the vocal tract. Nasal consonants’ acoustic characteristics include a low frequency nasal formant and damping of vowel formants. As the velum lowers during production of nasals, antiformants are formed that effectively decrease the intensity of the resonances of the vocal tract. Of all the consonants, the approximants (the glides and liquids) appear more similar in appearance to the vowels due to the presence of formants throughout their production. Approximants are usually shorter in duration than the vowels. The F1 formant transitions of the four approximants /j, w, r, and l/ all occur at a low frequency. However, their F2 transitions are clearly distinct due to the unique articulations associated with each approximant. F3 is important in helping to distinguish /ɹ/ from /l/.

Time, frequency, and intensity are terms used to describe the acoustic characteristics of any sound, including speech. Time is the simply the duration (usually in milliseconds) of any acoustic event. Frequency (Hz) refers to the number of cycles a vibrating body completes in one second. Therefore, the tines of a 1000-Hz tuning fork vibrate back and forth 1000times per second. Intensity (dB) refers to the amplitude (magnitude) of energy associated with a particular sound. The greater the energy associated with a particular auditory event, the greater its intensity. On a spectrogram, duration is displayed on the x-axis, frequency is displayed on the y-axis, and intensity is displayed as shading. The darker the shading, the greater the intensity. Vowels are longer in duration, more intense, and generally lower in frequency than consonants. They are easy to identify on a spectrogram due to the presence of formants, which appear as dark horizontal bars. Each vowel has a unique spectrographic pattern due to different resonances associated with each vowel. The resonances for each vowel are determined by specific jaw and tongue positions unique to each one. As the tongue moves forward in the mouth, F2 increases in frequency; as the tongue lowers in the mouth, F1 increases in frequency. In order to perceive all the vowels, F1 and F2 must be audible. Diphthongs are longer than vowels, as seen on a spectrogram. The onglide and offglide for each diphthong are clearly visible on a spectrogram due to the formant transition connecting the two. The direction of the transition is determined by the trajectory of the tongue as it moves from the onglide to the offglide. Consonants, as seen on a spectrogram, are generally less intense than vowels. Voicing appears on a spectrogram as periodic vertical striations throughout their productions. Also, voice bars are observable during the stop gaps associated with voiced stops.

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Acoustic measures of speech can be quite valuable clinically in the diagnosis and treatment of individuals with speech and hearing disorders. Measurement of the speaking fundamental frequency (SFF) assists in distinguishing male, female, and children’s voices. SFF is useful when working with male-tofemale transgender speakers when habitual pitch is perceived as being too low. Acoustic measures are

Chapter Six 195

useful in identifying consonants that occur at low volume levels, such as glottal stops and unreleased consonants, especially in the hearing-impaired population. Spectrographic analysis can help in identification and treatment of individuals with

hypernasality due to cleft palate, traumatic brain injury, or cerebral palsy. Acoustic measures of VOT, f 0 , shimmer, and jitter are important when working with individuals diagnosed with neurologic diseases, such as ALS and Parkinson’s disease.

Review Exercises A. Fill in the blank with the appropriate answer. 1. A(n) _________________________ is a graphic representation of sound that displays intensity on the ordinate and time on the abscissa. 2. The difference in decibels between whispered speech and loud speech is approximately _________________________ dB.

3. A spectrogram shows frequency on the _________________________ -axis and time on the _________________________ -axis. 4. Aspiration occurs only in production of _________________________.

5. The frequency array or energy pattern associated with any sound is called its _________________________.

6. A(n) _________________________ is the silent interval that reflects the time during which intraoral pressure is increasing prior to its release.

7. A low frequency energy band present during the period of a stop gap with production of /b/, /d/, or /ɡ/ is called a(n) _________________________. 8. Of the fricatives, _________________________ has the lowest-frequency spectrum. 9. _________________________ is the phoneme with the least intensity.

10. Inherent voice pitch, also known as _________________________ pitch, is determined by the _________________________, the average f 0 during conversational speech. B. Match each of the terms at the right with its correct description. 1. negative resonances of the vocal tract

2. helps cue place of articulation 3. reduction in the amplitude of a vibrating system

4. resonances of the vocal tract 5. high-intensity fricatives

6. time for a body to complete one cycle of vibration 7. time between release of a stop and onset of voicing

8. the number of cycles a vibrating body completes in one second

9. frictional noise burst following release of a stop

10. acoustic radiation from the nares during production of /m/, /n/, or /ŋ/, characterized by a series of formants

a. formant transition b. sibilants c. aspiration d. antiformants e. frequency f. damping g. period h. VOT i. nasal murmur j. formants

196 Acoustic Characteristics of Vowels and Consonants C. Circle T or F to indicate whether you think the statement is true or false. T T T

F F F

1. A negative VOT may occur with voiceless stops. 2. Another name for antiresonance is nasal murmur. 3. A low frequency F3 helps separate /ɹ/ from /w/ perceptually.

5. As the frequency of a tone increases, its period decreases.

T T

F F

4. On a spectrogram, intensity is located on the ordinate.

6. As the tongue moves forward in the mouth during production of vowels, F2 increases in frequency.

7. As the tongue lowers during vowel production, the frequency of F increases. 1

8. Stop gaps do not occur during production of voiced stops.

10. The velar pinch can be seen on a spectrogram by examining F1 and F2 .

T T T

F F F

9. Vowels are usually longer in duration when they precede voiced consonants. 11. /ʃ/ has a lower-frequency spectrum than /s/.

12. Formant transitions help cue place of articulation of sonorant consonants.

D. Compare each pair of vowels. Then indicate how F1 and F2 would vary as the tongue changes in production from the first vowel to the second vowel. Write either “rises” or “lowers” in the blanks. Example: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

/i/

/ɪ/

/ɛ/

/i/

/u/ /o/ /ɪ/

/æ/

/ɑ/ /e/

/ʊ/

/u/

rises

F2 F2 F1

E. Spectrogram Interpretation 1a. The spectrogram below is of one of the CVC words listed at the right. Which word is it? How did you come to your conclusion? a. cheese b. lease c. peace d. knees e. peas f. niece

Chapter Six 197

1b. The spectrogram below is of one of the CVC words listed at the right. Which word is it? How did you come to your conclusion? a. cheese b. lease c. peace d. knees e. peas f. niece

2. Examine the two spectrograms of the words “rain” and “lane.” Which is which? Which acoustic characteristics helped you make your decisions?

198 Acoustic Characteristics of Vowels and Consonants 3. The following spectrogram is of the word “cod.” Label each of the following directly on the spectrogram. a. a voice bar b. a formant transition c. F2 d. a stop gap e. aspiration

Study Questions 1. How do the F1 and F2 rules relate to tongue height and advancement during vowel production? 2. Which acoustic cues help differentiate voiced from voiceless stop consonants? 3. Contrast the terms time, intensity, and frequency. How are each indicated on a waveform and a spectrogram? 4. What are some ways in which vowels and consonants appear differently on a spectrogram? 5. What is a formant? What is its importance in speech acoustics? 6. How do formant transitions help cue differences in place of articulation when comparing bilabial, alveolar, and velar consonants? 7. Define the following terms in reference to production of plosives: stop gap, aspiration, VOT, and voice bar. 8. What are antiformants? What is the impact of antiformants on (a) nasal consonant production and (b) vowel nasalization? 9. What is the difference between a sibilant and a non-sibilant? Which consonants belong to each group?

10. What is the importance of F3 in perception of liquids? 11. Discuss at least three ways in which acoustic measurements are especially useful in the speech and hearing clinic. 12. Contrast the terms jitter and shimmer.

Online Resources Search online for Praat: Doing Phonetics by Computer. On the website’s home page, select the appropriate platform link (Macintosh, Windows, Linux, etc.) to download the software. Praat is a speech analysis software package created by Paul Boersma and David Weenink at the University of Amsterdam. They have made the software available for free. Information about the software and user manuals are located on the home page. Search online for Speech Acoustics Topics Macquarie University. This website provides a wealth of resources relative to basic acoustics and speech acoustics, including vowel and consonant spectrograms. Note: To have all phonetic symbols appear correctly, you will need to install the free phonetic font Charis SIL, available from SIL International. (This is the font that was used to create this text.)

Chapter 7

Connected Speech Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you will be able to: 7.1 Explain how connected speech affects the production of individual

speech sound segments (phonemes) in words and how these changes affect phonetic transcription.

7.2 Explain how the suprasegmental aspects of speech impact speech

production and phonetic transcription in connected speech.

By now you should feel fairly comfortable transcribing individual words using the correct IPA symbols with broad transcription. In Chapters4 and 5, the words given in all of the examples and exercises were transcribed as isolated items, as if they were excised from a sentence. When a word is pronounced carefully as a single item, it is said to be spoken in its citation form. The identity of a word spoken in citation form may differ markedly from its identity in connected speech. Connected speech results from joining two or more words together in the creation of an utterance. In Chapter5, some of the exercises involved transcription of items consisting of two words. However, these two-word utterances were transcribed as if each word was produced in citation form. The production of a particular utterance may vary drastically when comparing its citation form with its form in connected speech. In citation form, the word “him” would be transcribed as /hɪm/. The same word in connected speech might be transcribed as /əm/ as in the phrase “I caught him” /aɪkɔtəm/. Also, in connected speech, the production of any particular utterance will most likely vary from speaker to speaker due to differences in dialect and speaking style. In clinical practice, speech-language pathologists transcribe isolated words when administering phonological tests to their clients to determine which speech sounds are in need of remediation. More often than not, clinicians need to transcribe entire utterances as spoken by their clients. For example, after obtaining a language sample from a child, a clinician will need to analyze the utterances not only in terms of the specific syntactic (grammatical) structures being used but also in terms of the particular phonemes the child is using correctly or incorrectly. To perform a thorough phonological analysis of a client’s speech patterns, the speechlanguage pathologist may need to transcribe entire utterances of connected speech. Several major issues make transcribing connected or continuous speech much different from transcribing isolated words. For instance, in connected speech, phonemes may be altered or completely eliminated once words are strung together in an utterance. In addition, connected discourse is characterized by continuous changes in the stress, intonation, and timing of phonemes, words, and complete sentences. Listening to, and transcribing, words in continuous discourse requires a lot of concentration. It takes a good ear to be able to hear the subtle nuances associated with connected speech. This chapter will focus on two major issues associated with the transcription of connected speech: (1) segmental modifications and (2) suprasegmental aspects of speech.

200 Connected Speech

Segmental Modifications of Words in ConnectedSpeech

Learning Objective 7.1 Explain how connected speech affects the production of individual speech sound segments (phonemes) in words and how these changes affect phonetic transcription.

In citation form, each word is spoken in a somewhat deliberate manner; individual sound segments (or phonemes) are pronounced quite carefully, keeping the inherent length of each phoneme fairly intact. Once words are produced in conversation, the deliberateness of speech disappears. Phonemes are not produced in a strictly serial order as we speak; the onset of one phoneme will occur before the previous one has been completely articulated. This often results in an overlapping of the individual speech sound segments of English. For instance, the utterance “Where did you go?” might be produced as /wɛɹdʒəɡoʊ/. The question “What in the world are you going to do?” might be spoken as /wəʔn̩ðəwɝldɚjəɡʊnədu/. The syllable boundaries often become obscured in conversational, or casual, speech, even though listeners have little difficulty understanding what is being said. Also, notice that the quality of the vowels changes quite markedly in connected speech. In connected speech, several processes occur on a regular basis that often change the shape of words when compared to their pronunciation in isolation or when spoken in citation form. These processes include assimilation, elision, epenthesis, metathesis, and vowel reduction.

Assimilation

When we talk, it is necessary to overlap the production of the various phonemes to maintain the rapidity of connected speech. The overlapping of the articulators during speech production is termed coarticulation. Coarticulation is a time-efficient process; there is simply not enough time for the articulators to produce each phoneme in its intended isolated form. In addition, coarticulation makes connected speech easier for the speaker to produce. Speech would become quite laborious and slow, indeed, if each individual phoneme was produced in its full, isolated form in every syllable of every word. An example of coarticulation can be found in the production of the word “soon.” In this word, the lips are already rounded at the beginning of the word in anticipation of the rounded vowel /u/. That is, the normally unrounded phoneme /s/ becomes rounded due to the phonetic environment provided by the vowel. Say the word “soon,” paying particular attention to the position of your lips for the phoneme /s/. This rounded version of /s/ (written as [sw] in narrow transcription) is an allophone of the /s/ phoneme. Another example of coarticulation can be seen by examining the articulation of the phoneme /n/ in the word “tenth.” In “tenth,” the tongue is placed against or between the teeth in production of /n/ instead of at the alveolar ridge. That is, /n/ will become dentalized in this particular phonetic environment. Dentalized /n/ is an allophone of /n/ indicated by the dental diacritic [ ]̪ , as in “tenth” [tɛn̪θ]. In continuous speech, it is also possible for a particular phonetic context to cause a phoneme to be replaced by a completely different phoneme. Examine the utterance “was she.” In conversation, this phrase is typically produced as /wʌʒ ʃi/. Note that the /z/ phoneme (in the word “was”) is produced farther back in the mouth than normal due to the postalveolar fricative /ʃ/ in the word “she.” In this example, the change from /z/ to /ʒ/ (due to /ʃ/) occurs across the boundary between the two words. This process, whereby phonemes take on the phonetic character of neighboring sounds, is referred to as assimilation. Some phoneticians suggest that assimilation is brought about as a direct result of coarticulation during the production of connected speech (Calvert, 1986; Ohde & Sharf, 1992). While some individuals support the notion that coarticulation and assimilation are two separate processes (MacKay, 1987), others use the terms synonymously

Chapter Seven 201

(Cruttenden, 2008). When viewed as separate processes, coarticulation is defined as a change in the phonetic identity of a sound that results only in an allophonic variation of a phoneme, whereas assimilation refers specifically to articulatory changes that result in the production of a completely different phoneme. In this text, coarticulation is viewed as the articulatory process whereby individual phonemes overlap one another due to timing constraints and simplicity of production. Assimilation is viewed as the realized changes in the identity of phonemes brought about by coarticulation. The term assimilation is used here to refer to both allophonic changes and phonemic changes brought about by phonetic environment. Regressive assimilation is one form of assimilation that occurs when the identity of a phoneme is modified due to a phoneme following it. This is also referred to as right-to-left or anticipatory assimilation. That is, the articulators anticipate the production of a phoneme occurring later in time. An example of regressive assimilation was given for the pronunciation of the phrase “was she” as /wʌʒ ʃi/. Recall that the /z/ in “was” /wʌz/ was pronounced as /ʒ/ due to the influence of /ʃ/ in “she.” This is illustrated in the following: /wʌz ʃi/ → /wʌʒ ʃi/

↑

Consider the utterance “Would you like to go?” How might you say this utterance? One acceptable pronunciation might be /wʊdʒəlaɪkɾəgoʊ/. Notice that “would you” is transcribed as /wʊdʒə/. The environment provided by the palatal glide /j/ of “you” alters the pronunciation of /d/ in the word “would,” resulting in a right-to-left assimilation of /d/ to /dʒ/. In this case, the alveolar plosive /d/ becomes postalveolar, inducing articulation of the affricate /dʒ/. A similar example involves production of the word “question.” This word can be pronounced one of two ways: /kwɛstʃən/ or /kwɛʃtʃən/. Notice that in the second example, the /s/ has been assimilated to /ʃ/ due to the postalveolar affricate /tʃ/ in the second syllable of the word. This is a clear demonstration of right-to-left assimilation. Many of the assimilations brought about by phonetic environment are seen as a change in the place of articulation of a particular phoneme. Most of these assimilations are regressive; the phonemes become similar in place of articulation to later-occurring phonemes. The following examples, offered by Cruttendon (2008), demonstrate regressive assimilation resulting in a change in alveolar place of articulation. that guy → [ðæk˺ ɡaɪ]

hat box → [hæp˺ bɑks]

bad boy → [bæb˺ bɔɪ]

road kill → [ɹoʊg˺ kɪl]

tin cup → /tɪŋ kʌp/

win more → /wɪm mɔɹ/

cross check → /kɹɑʃ tʃɛk/

please share → /pliʒ ʃɛɹ/

I’ll bet you → /aɪlbɛtʃə/

Miss Universe → /mɪʃjunɪvɚs/

Note: [ ] indicates an unreleased plosive. Conversely, progressive assimilation occurs when a phoneme’s identity changes as the result of a phoneme preceding it in time. This type of assimilation is also called left-to-right or perseverative assimilation. That is, the articulators persevere in their production of a particular phoneme and maintain a particular posture for a later phoneme. One example of progressive assimilation occurs when a nasal phoneme follows a plosive with the same place of articulation, as in “happen” /hæpm̩ /. In this case, the place of articulation of the plosive is preserved in production of the nasal in left-to-right assimilation (refer to Cruttenden, 2008). This is illustrated in the following: /hæpən/ → /hæpm̩ /

↑

202 Connected Speech Another example of progressive, or left-to-right, assimilation can be seen when the plural morpheme “s” is pronounced as /z/ when it follows a voiced phoneme— for example, “dogs” /dɑɡz/ or “arms” /ɑɹmz/ (instead of /dɑɡs/ or /ɑɹms/). In these examples, the voiced phoneme has a left-to-right (progressive) effect on the following plural morpheme “s,” causing it to be produced as /z/ instead of /s/. In contrast, “s” is pronounced as /s/ when it follows a voiceless phoneme—for example, “s” in “cats” /kæts/ stays voiceless because the previous sound /t/ is voiceless. Similarly, production of the past-tense morpheme “ed” is produced as /t/ when preceded by a voiceless phoneme; for example, “walked” /wɑkt/ instead of /wɑkd/. In contrast, “ed” is produced as /d/ when preceded by a voiced phoneme; for example, “ed” in “jogged” /dʒɑɡd/ remains voiced because the previous sound /ɡ/ is voiced. In sum, the voicing feature of the plural morpheme and the past-tense morpheme is predictable by the voicing feature of the preceding sound, illustrating the effect of left-to-right progressive assimilation.

Exercise 7.1 Examine the following phrases and their corresponding transcriptions. Decide whether each transcription is the result of either regressive or progressive assimilation. Place either R (regressive) or P (progressive) in the blank provided.

1. “win the race”

[wɪn̪ðəreɪs]

2. “can’t you hear me”

/kæntʃəhɪrmi/

3. “cat collar”

[kæk˺ kɑlɚ]

4. “buttered pancakes”

/bʌɾɚd pæŋkeks/

5. “captain Karl”

/kæpm̩ kɑrl ̩/

6. “with Theresa”

[wɪθt ̪isɚisə]

Elision

In English, it is common for phonemes to be entirely eliminated during production due to particular phonetic contexts. For instance, the word “exactly” may be spoken as /əɡzæklɪ/. Notice that the /t/ has been eliminated in this particular pronunciation. Omission of a phoneme during speech production is called elision. Another example of elision occurs in the word “camera.” It is not uncommon for speakers to pronounce this word as /kæmɹə/ as opposed to /kæmɚə/. Note that in /kæmɹə/ an entire syllable has been deleted, or elided. Deletion of an entire syllable is known as haplology. Other examples of haplology include /laɪbɹɪ/ for “library,” /pɹɑblɪ/ or /pɹɑlɪ/ for “probably,” and /lɑndo/ for “Lando,” my friend Orlando’s nickname. Elision often results as a historical process as a language develops over time. Elision also occurs as a result of coarticulation associated with connected speech. In addition, elision is found to occur across word boundaries due to certain phonetic environments. Examine the words and phrases (along with their transcriptions) in Table7.1 to see the resultant elision brought about by effects of phonetic context.

Epenthesis

In connected speech, additional phonemes are sometimes inserted in words during their production. The addition of a phoneme to the production of a word is termed epenthesis. Epenthesis can be the result of factors related to (1) coarticulation, (2) variation in production, or (3) speech disorders.

Chapter Seven 203

TABLE 7.1 Examples of Elision. Utterance

Transcription

Elided Phoneme

aptly

/æplɪ/

/t/

fifths

/fɪfs/

/θ/

asthma glands

used to

cup of tea

What’s his name? Give me that.

/æzmə/ /ɡlænz/ /juztu/

/kʌpəti/

/wətsəzneɪm/ /ɡɪmɪðæt/

/ð/ /d/ /d/ /v/

/h/ /v/

In terms of coarticulation, the glides /j/ and /w/ may sometimes seem to appear between two adjacent vowels, either in the same word or in two different words. For example, it may seem that the glide /j/ is inserted after a front vowel (or diphthong) in words such as: “Leo” /li(j)oʊ/

“Ohio” /ohaɪ(j)oʊ/

“we own” /wi(j)oʊn/

Similarly, it may seem that the glide /w/ is inserted after a back vowel, as in: “cooing” /ku(w)ɪŋ/

“go in” /ɡo(w)ɪn/

“to each” /tu(w)itʃ/

In these examples, the tongue is gliding in transition from one vowel nucleus to another. The addition of these “transitional” phonemes often result as “native speakers correctly pronounce their own language” (MacKay, 1987, p.147). The glides /w/ and /j/ in these contexts are better thought of as transitional phonemes, as opposed to true phonemes. This can be demonstrated by comparing phrases that contrast a transitional /w/ with a phonemic /w/ as in “no axe” /no(w)æks/ versus “no wax” /no wæks/. Say these two phrases aloud, paying attention to your articulation as you say them. You clearly should be able to hear the difference between these two phrases when spoken aloud. Another example with transitional /j/ occurs in comparison of the phrases “my oak” /maɪ(j)oʊk/ versus “my yolk” /maɪ joʊk/ (refer to Cruttenden, 2008). Based on this discussion, it should now be evident why transitional phonemes should not be included in phonetic transcription. Epenthesis may occur in words in which a nasal consonant precedes a voiceless fricative, as in: “tense” /tɛnts/

“lengths” /lɛŋkθs/

“Amsterdam” /æmpstɚdæm/

In production of these words, a homorganic voiceless stop (in bold) may be added during production, even though the stop does not actually occur in the original word. These added phonemes are the result of physiological constraints on the articulators (due to coarticulation) when producing the phoneme sequence of nasal + fricative—that is, /ns/ (tense), /ŋθ/ (lengths), and /ms/ (Amsterdam). Due to individual speaking style or dialectal variation, some speakers do not make a true distinction in production of words such as “chance”/“chants” or “tense”/“tents.” For these individuals, both productions are identical and therefore would be transcribed the same, that is, /tʃænts/ or /tɛnts/. However, many speakers do, in fact, make a clear distinction between the two pronunciations of these words: /tʃæns/ – /tʃænts/ or /tɛns/ – /tɛnts/. You will have to listen carefully during transcription to determine whether a speaker is actually inserting a stop following the nasal in these contexts. Other examples of epenthesis occur in the idiosyncratic or dialectal production of certain words. For instance, the words “elm” and “film” are pronounced by some individuals (including my father) as /ɛləm/ and /fɪləm/. Also, some speakers in the

204 Connected Speech southern United States insert the vowel /i/ before /u/ in words such as “Tuesday” /tiuzdeɪ/ or “due” /diu/. Some Asian Indian English speakers insert a glide before a vowel, as in “okay” /wokeɪ/. The consonant clusters /sp/, /st/, or /sk/ do not occur in the initial position of words in many Asian Indian languages. Therefore, Asian Indian speakers of English may add /i/ or /ɪ/ to the initial portion of the cluster, creating two syllables, as in “spot” /ispat/ or “school” /ɪskul/. Finally, epenthesis is sometimes observed in individuals with speech sound disorders. For instance, some children will insert /ə/ in the middle of a consonant blend. Examples include “break” /bəreɪk/ and “glad” /ɡəlæd/. Schwa insertion also occurs in the speech of some deaf individuals.

Exercise 7.2 Examine each of the following words or phrases and their corresponding transcriptions. Determine whether the transcription indicates elision, epenthesis, or neither process. Write EL (elision), EP (epenthesis), or N (neither) in the blank. Then indicate the phoneme that is involved in the change (if any). Examples: lengths

/lɛŋks/

/θ/

lamb

/læm/

1. noon

/nuən/

2. countess

/kaʊnəs/

3. miss you

/mɪʃju/

4. friends

/fɹɛnz/

5. straw

/stɹɔɹ/

6. kept quiet

/kɛpkwaɪət/

7. choose

/tʃiuz/

8. can he go

/kæniɡoʊ/

9. milk carton

/mɛlk kɑrʔn̩/

/tɛrbl ̩/

10. terrible

Metathesis

The transposition of sounds in a word is known as metathesis. Metathesis can occur as a result of a “slip of the tongue,” personal speaking style, dialectal variation, or a speech disorder. Some examples include: elephant

ask

realtor

→ /ɛfələnt/

→ /æks/

→ /ɹilətɚ/

spaghetti

→ /pəsɡɛɾɪ/

animal

→ /æmɪnl ̩/

cinnamon → /sɪmənən/

Vowel Reduction

Another issue commonly encountered when transcribing connected speech involves the phenomenon called vowel reduction. Often, the full form (full weight) of a vowel (such as /æ/) becomes more like the mid-central vowel /ə/ when spoken in connected speech. Compare the following transcriptions of the utterance “I can go.” /aɪ kæn ɡoʊ/ /aɪkənɡoʊ/

citation form with full vowel /æ/

casual form with reduced vowel /ə/

Chapter Seven 205

The citation form above would be indicative of very careful pronunciation, as if all three words were spoken in isolation. Contrast the citation form with the casual form. Notice that the vowel /æ/ has been reduced to /ə/. In other words, the articulation of the vowel shifted from low front to mid-central. In this case, the tongue does not meet the true articulatory target for /æ/ in the low front portion of the mouth. Instead, the body of the tongue remains toward the center of the oral cavity. You have already experienced vowel reduction in certain isolated words such as “feasible.” When transcribing this word, it would be possible to transcribe the second vowel with /ɪ/ as in /fizɪbl ̩/or with /ə/ as in /fizəbl ̩/, depending on the pronunciation. In the second transcription, the /ɪ/ vowel reflects reduction to /ə/. What causes vowel reduction? In connected speech, there is often not time for the articulators to achieve their target positions because speech occurs so rapidly. Therefore, the articulators adopt new positions that are still acceptable to the ear. These vowel reductions are not considered to be “bad,” “lazy,” or “sloppy” articulations. They are simply considered to be the product of connected speech. Following is a list of words demonstrating the process of vowel reduction. Each word is transcribed twice, first using a particular vowel in its full form, and second using the reduced vowel form. Notice that the two pronunciations for each word are acceptable depending on the way a person might say the words. Examples of VowelReduction tomorrow decide

tribunal obscene excel

domestic

Full Vowel

Reduced Vowel

/disaɪd/

/dəsaɪd/

/tumɑɹoʊ/ /tɹaɪbjunl ̩/ /ɑbsin/ /ɛksɛl/

/domɛstɪk/

/təmɑɹoʊ/ /tɹəbjunl ̩/ /əbsin/ /əksɛl/

/dəmɛstɪk/

The following six word pairs are composed of words sharing the same morpheme. Note the difference in pronunciation between the vowels (in bold) in each pair. The first word in each pair has a vowel with full weight, that is, not reduced. The second word of each pair has the reduced form of the vowel. In each pair, the change in vowel form from full to reduced is due to a change in primary word stress away from the syllable in question. transform

/tɹænsˈfɔɹm/

concept

/ˈkɑnsɛpt/

excrete

/ɛksˈkɹit/

impose

/ɪmˈpoʊz/

transformation excretory sequence

sequential

/tɹænsfɚˈmeɪʃən/ /ˈɛkskɹətɔɹɪ/ /ˈsikwəns/

/səˈkwɛnʃəl/

conception imposition condemn

condemnation

/kənˈsɛpʃən/ /ɪmpəˈzɪʃən/ /kənˈdɛm/

/kɑndəmˈneɪʃən/

Each of the following word pairs demonstrates more than one vowel undergoing a change in vowel quality. Examine each pair in order to see the changes from the full to the reduced vowel form, or vice versa. demon

/ˈdimən/

geometry

/dʒiˈɑmətɹi/

metabolism

/məˈtæbəlɪzm̩ /

parameter

/pɚˈæməɾɚ/

demonic

metabolic

/dəˈmɑnək/

/mɛtəˈbɑlɪk/

geometric

parametric

/dʒiəˈmɛtɹɪk/ /pɛɹəˈmɛtɹɪk/

206 Connected Speech

Exercise 7.3 Transcribe each of the following word pairs, paying attention to the changes in vowel quality (for the bold letters) inherent in their pronunciations. Example: valid

/vælɪd/

validity

/vəlɪdɪɾɪ/

1. miracle

miraculous

2. accuse

accusation

3. authorize

authority

4. demolish

demolition

5. mechanical

mechanistic

In connected speech, many English monosyllabic words undergo a change in pronunciation when compared to the way they might be spoken in isolation. The change in pronunciation of these words is brought about by vowel reduction associated with changes in word stress. An example, given earlier, involved production of the word “can” as /kən/ in the phrase I can go /aɪ kən ɡoʊ/. Another example can be demonstrated with the pronunciation of the word “as” in the phrase as soon as possible (/əz sun əz pɑsəbl ̩/). The reason for the changes in the pronunciation of the words “can” and “as” is due to the fact that, in isolation, the words both could be spoken as stressed monosyllables. In connected, casual speech, they would rarely be stressed. The change in the pronunciation of “can” and “as” demonstrates a shift from what is called the strong form of the words (/kæn/ and /æz/) to the weak form of the words (/kən/ and / əz/) (Cruttenden, 2008). Another example involves pronunciation of the monosyllable “the.” It is rarely pronounced with full stress, as in /ðʌ/. More commonly, the pronunciation is unstressed (i.e.,/ðə/). Some other examples of weak forms of words include: /n̩/ for “and” as in /ðɪs n̩ ðæt/ /jə/ for “you” as in /jə θɪŋk/ /fɚ/ for “for” as in /fɚ mi/ /ɪz/ for “his” as in /wʌts ɪz nem/ /l ̩/ for “will” as in /haʊl ̩ ju du ɪt/ PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.1

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Exercise 7.4 Transcribe each phrase twice, first in citation form and then in casual form. Example: bigger than me 1. your mother 2. right and left

/bɪɡɚ ðæn mi/

/bɪɡɚ ðən mi/

Continues

Chapter Seven 207

Exercise 7.4 (Cont.) 3. food for thought 4. What will they do? 5. Thank him. 6. as big as 7. of mice and men 8. What is her name?

The following examples help demonstrate more clearly pronunciation changes inherent in continuous speech. Compare the first transcription, the citation form of each utterance, with the second transcription, the more casual pronunciation. Keep in mind that the examples given are only one possible way of saying each utterance in connected speech. Pay particular attention to the inherent vowel reduction, as well as the assimilation, associated with the more casual form. Note the use of the double-bar diacritic /ǁ/ in the following transcriptions. It is used to represent a long pause at the end of a thought during transcription of connected speech. Did you eat yet? I could eat a horse. /dɪd ju it jɛtǁ aɪ kʊd it eɪ hɔɹsǁ/ [dʒitjɛtǁ aɪkədiɾəhɔɹsǁ] What in the world are you going to do? /wʌt ɪn ðə wɝld ɑɹ ju ɡoʊɪŋ tu duǁ/ [wəʔn̩ðəwɝldɚjəɡʊnəduǁ] What has your brother done with my cat and dog? /wʌt hæz jɔɹ bɹʌðɚ dʌn wɪθ maɪ kæt ænd dɑɡǁ/ [wətʃɚbɹəðɚdʌnwɪθmaɪkæʔn̩dɔɡǁ] When does the train arrive with her luggage? /wɛn dʌz ðʌ tɹeɪn əɹaɪv wɪθ hɝ lʌɡədʒǁ/ [wɛnzðətɹenəɹaɪvwɪðɚlʌɡədʒǁ] PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.2

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Exercise 7.5 Transcribe the following utterances, first in citation form and then in casual form. 1. I bet you I can help them get out of that mess. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. I caught you cheating on that test. I am going to tell the teacher. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3. What is his reason for not being able to come to the party? ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ Continues

208 Connected Speech

Exercise 7.5 (Cont.) 4. What’s the matter with Thelma? Let me see if I can cheer her up. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ 5. What did you do to your car? I should be able to get it going. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Complete Assignment 7-1.

Suprasegmental Aspects ofSpeech

Learning Objective 7.2 Explain how the suprasegmental aspects of speech impact speech production and phonetic transcription in connected speech.

In contrast with isolated words, connected speech is characterized by continual modifications or alterations in stress, in the timing of words, and in intonation. It is these alterations that give connected speech its natural characteristic rhythm. Stress, timing, and intonation variations do not affect solely the individual speech sound segments of words. These modifications span entire syllables, words, phrases, and sentences. For this reason, stress, timing, and intonation are generally referred to as the suprasegmental aspects of speech production. The prefix supra- means above, beyond, or to transcend. Therefore, the suprasegmental features of speech go beyond, or transcend, the boundaries of the individual speech sound segment or phoneme, affecting an entire utterance.

Stress Revisited

The preceding discussion should not imply that isolated words are immune from the effects of the suprasegmental features of speech. Word stress is a suprasegmental feature of speech because entire syllables are stressed, not just individual phonemes. Your transcription practice up to this point has helped you clearly understand the importance of being able to identify the syllables with primary stress in any word. During transcription, you now know when to accurately use /ə/ versus /ʌ/ and /ɚ/ versus /ɝ/. Without this knowledge, it would not be possible to transcribe English accurately using the IPA. Up to now, we have been concerned only with identifying primary stress in words. As you recall, a syllable that receives primary stress generally is spoken with more articulatory force, resulting in a syllable that is louder, longer in duration, and higher in pitch than an unstressed syllable. It is time to turn our attention to other degrees of word stress. Multisyllabic words have syllables with more than one degree or level of stress. For instance, the word “pretense” has two levels of stress: primary and secondary. This word would be transcribed as /ˈpriˌtɛns/. Note that the IPA symbol for indicating secondary stress is a small mark below and to the left of the syllable receiving secondary stress. The following two-syllable words each have two levels of stress. ˌmainˈtain

ˌtranˈscend

ˈvalˌue

ˌtranˈscribe

ˈeˌgo

ˈcouˌpon

ˌinˈclude ˌsarˈdine

ˌalˈthough ˈmoˌped

ˈproˌnoun ˈpayˌroll

Chapter Seven 209

PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.3

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Exercise 7.6 The following words have two levels of stress—primary and secondary. Mark each syllable’s stress pattern accordingly, using the appropriate IPA symbols for stress. 9. erode

1. intense

5. teabag

2. falsehood

6. frostbite

10. handshake

3. Lucite

7. obese

11. react

4. rosette

8. entree

12. household

Not all multisyllabic words have syllables with both primary and secondary stress. Some multisyllabic words have only one (primary) stressed syllable. When the nucleus of the other syllable (or syllables) contains either /ə/, /ɚ/, /m̩ /, /n̩/, or /l ̩/ (or sometimes /ɪ/ and /ʊ/ when produced in a reduced form), the syllable is said to be unstressed. We already know that /ə/ and /ɚ/ are never found in a syllable receiving primary stress. According to Carrell and Tiffany (1960), the schwa vowel is considered an indefinite vowel because it is more of a “murmur” than a full vowel. Its indefinite status makes it a nonprominent nucleus, so much so that it receives no stress at all. The following bisyllabic words have only one stressed syllable (marked appropriately). The other syllable is unstressed. ˈriddle

ˈperson

surˈround

ˈLauren

ˈhappy

conˈtain

ˈbutton

ˈmanage

ˈzebra

preˈtend

seˈdate

reˈmind

Note that when /ɪ/ is the nucleus of a final open syllable (as in “happy”) or the nucleus of the syllable /ɪŋ/, it is unstressed (and lax) as well.

PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.4

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Exercise 7.7 The following bisyllabic words have only one syllable that receives stress; the other syllable is unstressed. Mark the stressed syllable using the correct IPA symbol for primary stress. 1. leopard

5. murky

9. scary

2. sweater

6. anoint

10. naked

3. rhythm

7. magnet

11. extreme

4. contend

8. belief

12. parade

The following three-syllable words have only one stressed syllable: conˈtagious

baˈloney

aˈlerted

aˈversion

ˈterrible

ˈshivering

ferˈocious

conˈcession

ˈcalendar beˈhavior

ˈconstable ˈinterval

210 Connected Speech The following four-syllable words also have only one stressed syllable: ˈliteracy

ˈpassionately

volˈuminous

ˈspeculative

chryˈsanthemum

couˈrageously

ˈdefinitely

ˈpersonable

PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.5

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ˈknowledgeable toˈgetherness

chroˈnology exˈperience

Exercise 7.8 The following three- and four-syllable words have only one stressed syllable. Mark each one correctly using the IPA symbol for primary stress. 9. sorority

1. measuring

5. courageous

2. statistics

6. Germany

10. fraternity

3. laryngeal

7. unbearable

11. Albuquerque

4. warranted

8. Canadian

12. dysphonia

Now contrast the following three- and four-syllable words that each have syllables with primary and secondary stress (in addition to unstressed syllables). ˌplanˈtation

ˌreimˈburse

ˌmorˈphemic

ˌtranˈscription

ˌMonˈtana

ˈpeneˌtrate

ˈinterˌnet

ˈsaxoˌphone

ˈmandaˌtory ˈrepliˌcate

PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.6

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ˌtranˈsistor

ˈtermiˌnate

ˌparaˈplegia ˌeduˈcation

ˈtantaˌmount ˈzodiˌac

disˈcriminˌate ˈgeneralˌize

Exercise 7.9 The following three- and four-syllable words have two levels of stress (in addition to some unstressed syllables). Mark primary and secondary stress using the appropriate IPA symbols. 9. alimony

1. myopic

5. citation

2. cyberspace

6. circumstance

10. communicate

3. architect

7. bacteria

11. elevator

4. idea

8. effervescent

12. Indiana

Complete Assignment 7-2.

Chapter Seven 211

Sentence Stress

In addition to word stress, each sentence a speaker produces also has inherent sentence stress. Examine the following: “Donna drove to school.” Say this sentence aloud in a natural manner, the way you might say it while conversing with a friend. In this manner, you may have noticed that the last word in the sentence tends to stand out or have more emphasis. Say the sentence again, and see if you notice the emphasis on the last word, “Donna drove to ˈschool.” Many sentences and phrases are spoken with the primary emphasis or stress on the last word. Look at the following phrases and sentences. Listen for the emphasis on the final word in each phrase or sentence. Notice the words that receive primary stress, especially in the last two examples. I like his ˈstyle. Keith and Dick went ˈhome. If Jamie gets ˈcaught, she will get in ˈtrouble. In order to get good ˈgrades, you will have to study ˈharder. Phrases and sentences do not always end with a stressed word. Certain words in a sentence usually receive emphasis or stress depending on (1) the level of importance of that word in the sentence and (2) the speaker’s intent of the message being conveyed. Words that contain salient information in a sentence are called content words. Content words are generally nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The less important words in a sentence, including pronouns, articles, prepositions, and conjunctions, are called function words. Content words tend to (but do not always) receive sentence stress; function words usually do not receive stress. In the sentence “Donna drove to school,” the content words are “Donna,” “drove,” and “school.” Although “school” tends to receive stress when this sentence is produced in a neutral manner, it would be possible to stress the other content words, depending on the speaker’s intent. When the final word of the sentence, “school,” is stressed, the speaker denotes the location to which Donna drove—she drove to school, not the library. Compare these variations of the sentence: Donna ˈdrove to school.

ˈDonna drove to school.

What is the speaker’s intent in each of these sentences? In the first sentence, the speaker stressed the word “drove” to indicate Donna’s mode of transportation— Donna drove to school; she did not walk. In the second sentence, the speaker stressed the word “Donna” to indicate that Donna, not her husband, Roger, drove to school. Notice that in each case, stress was placed on a content word. The use of sentence stress to indicate a speaker’s particular intent is termed contrastive stress. Examine the stress shifts in the following statements. In each case, the speaker uses stress contrastively to indicate the particular intent desired. Sentence:

Intent:

Leigh purchased a new red sedan.

Leigh didn’t sell the car.

Leigh purchased a new red sedan. Leigh purchased a new red sedan.

Kennedi didn’t buy the car. Leigh didn’t buy a used car.

Leigh didn’t buy the green car. Leigh didn’t buy the SUV.

212 Connected Speech

Exercise 7.10 Underline the word in each of the following sentences that would receive primary sentence stress based on the given intent. Example: Intent:

Skylar didn’t buy pants.

Sentence:

She bought a shirt last week.

Sentence:

Aunt Carol and I went to a matinee.

1. Intent: 2. Intent:

My neighbor David lives at 4555 East Brooklyn Avenue.

Sentence:

Flo ate the taffy from the circus.

4. Intent:

Billy and Jennifer talked to their grandmother.

Sentence:

Billy and Jennifer did not get a chance to talk to their uncle.

Sentence:

The third graders really liked Mr.Harlan.

5. Intent:

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

David doesn’t live on West Brooklyn.

Sentence: 3. Intent:

PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.7

We did not go to a play last night.

Sam doesn’t care for taffy.

They liked Mrs.Harlan’s husband.

Exercise 7.11 Listen to each of the following sentences. Underline the word that is given primary sentence stress. Then write the intent of the utterance on the blank line. Example: Mary had a little lamb. She didn’t have a goat. 1. The girl’s name was Chris. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. Jared only forgot to get the toothpaste at the store. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3. Why did they walk to the playground? _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4. Why did they walk to the playground? _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ 5. Mark got a new blue bike for his birthday. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ 6. Mark got a new blue bike for his birthday. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ 7. Mark got a new blue bike for his birthday. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Sentence stress also plays an important role in distinguishing the type of information being presented by a speaker. When conversing with someone, the conversation usually volleys back and forth between the two participants. Two types of information are provided during a conversation: given information and new information.

Chapter Seven 213

When people converse, each person typically will provide new information to the conversation, adding to the given (old) information previously discussed. For instance, a friend might ask, “What did you have for lunch?” Your reply might be “I had a hamburger and french fries for lunch.” Hamburger and french fries would be considered new information, since this is your addition to the conversation. Because these words provide new information to the listener, they would typically be stressed. The phrases “I had a . . .” and “for lunch” would be given information since the information refers back to the prior question; these phrases would not receive stress. Suppose your friend responds, “Oh, I only had a cheeseburger.” In this case cheeseburger would be the new information in the dialogue; it would correspondingly receive stress. Examine the following conversation between Janet and Robin. They are discussing Janet’s most recent purchase. As you read the dialogue, it is easy to see that each participant’s response advances the conversation. New information is in italic. Janet:

You got a new purse.

Janet:

Which mall?

Robin: Robin: Janet:

Robin: Janet:

Robin:

Yeah, I got it at the mall. The one downtown.

Which store did you get it at? Oh. I got it at Green’s. Was it expensive? It was on sale.

Was it more than fifty dollars? It was only twenty!

As the conversation ensues, each participant stresses or emphasizes the new information she wishes to convey. Of course, neither participant is consciously stressing these words; it happens as a result of knowing how sentence stress is utilized in conversation. The use of sentence stress (as well as other suprasegmental features) is behavior that is the direct consequence of learning language and being familiar with the way language operates in conversation. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.8

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

Exercise 7.12 The following dialogue is between a waitress and a customer in a restaurant. Circle the words in the dialogue that are stressed in order to convey new information. Waitress:

Would you like something to drink?

Waitress:

Would you like an appetizer?

Customer: Customer: Waitress:

Lemonade, please. I would also like to order. No, thank you.

Would you like to hear about our specials?

Customer: Please. Waitress:

We have grilled salmon and fettuccine alfredo.

Waitress:

Would you like our house dressing on your salad? It’s Italian.

Customer: Customer: Waitress:

Customer: Waitress:

I’ll have the fettuccine.

I would like to have blue cheese, please. I’ll also bring out some fresh rolls. Thank you.

You’re welcome.

214 Connected Speech When marking sentence stress in transcription, you will first need to identify the one word that receives primary sentence stress. Then you will need to identify the other content words in the utterance. The word receiving primary sentence stress will be marked with the traditional IPA symbol (ˈ) preceding the syllable that normally receives word stress. The stressed syllables of the other content words will be marked using the IPA symbol for secondary stress (ˌ). For example, the sentence “I want iced coffee” would be marked for sentence stress in the following manner (depending on the speaker’s intent): ˌI want ˈiced ˌcoffee. (I want cold coffee.) ˌI want ˌiced ˈcoffee. (I do not want tea.) Now contrast the following sentence pairs: The boys jumped into the pool.

Olivia will be married in September.

The boys jumped into the pool.

Olivia will be married in September.

The boys jumped into the pool.

Olivia will be married in September.

The ˈboys ˌjumped into the ˌpool. The ˌboys ˈjumped into the ˌpool. The ˌboys ˌjumped into the ˈpool.

ˈOlivia will be ˌmarried in Sepˌtember. ˌOlivia will be ˈmarried in Sepˌtember. ˌOlivia will be ˌmarried in Sepˈtember.

Foreign speakers who are learning English as a second language may have trouble producing English stress patterns, both in words and in sentences. Word stress is not predictable in English as it is in some other languages. Therefore, it is difficult for new users of English to learn to use stress patterns correctly. Improper use of word and sentence stress may add to the “accent” of an individual learning English as a second language. Individuals who have a severe or profound hearing loss may experience difficulties producing stress patterns correctly because their auditory channel is diminished. For example, speakers with hearing loss may incorrectly stress function words because the rules of stress placement are not fully understood. Placing stress on function words may make speech and language unintelligible to normal hearing listeners since this is not a typical English stress pattern. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.9

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

Exercise 7.13 Mark sentence stress for each of the following items using the appropriate IPA notation. Each sentence will be spoken by two different speakers. Pay attention to differences in stress between the two speakers. Example:

a. The ˌcow ˌ jumped over the ˈmoon.

b. The ˌcow ˈjumped over the ˌmoon.

1. a. Steve’s roommate is from Minneapolis.

b. Steve’s roommate is from Minneapolis. 2. a. Tim went skydiving on Saturday.

b. Tim went skydiving on Saturday. 3. a. The answer on the exam was “false.”

b. The answer on the exam was “false.” 4. a. Mary’s birthday is next Tuesday.

b. Mary’s birthday is next Tuesday. Continues

Chapter Seven 215

Exercise 7.13 (Cont.) 5. a. I’d like a steak for dinner.

b. I’d like a steak for dinner. 6. a. I went to New York City to see some plays.

b. I went to New York City to see some plays. 7. a. My professor shaved his mustache.

b. My professor shaved his mustache. 8. a. I need potatoes from the store.

b. I need potatoes from the store.

Intonation

It is often difficult to talk about sentence stress without addressing the topic of intonation, another suprasegmental feature of speech. Because stress involves changes in voice pitch, speakers continually modify the fundamental frequency of their voice while speaking in order to stress particular words in an utterance. The modification of voice pitch is known as intonation. A speaker’s intonation pattern cues a listener as to the type of utterance being spoken, that is, a statement of fact, a question, an exclamation, and so forth. When someone asks a question requiring a yes/no answer, voice pitch generally rises at the end of the utterance. Intonation is also responsible, at least in part, for indicating a speaker’s particular mood. Consider the short sentence “I did.” This statement can be spoken in several ways depending on the speaker’s intent and the corresponding intonation pattern. For instance, “I did” could be spoken as a casual, matter-of-fact reply to the question “Did you read the paper today?” The statement could be spoken with emphasis on the word “did” in response to the never-ending parental question “Have you cleaned your room yet?” In response to “Who ate the pie?” a speaker would probably emphasize the word “I.” With each change in speaker intent, there would be a corresponding change in the intonation applied to the utterance. Note that in each version of the utterance, there is not only a change in sentence stress but also a corresponding increase in the speaking fundamental frequency of the voice, which would be perceived as being higher in pitch. An intonational phrase is made up of all changes in fundamental frequency spanning the length of a meaningful utterance. An intonational phrase may consist of an entire sentence, a phrase, or simply one word. Long sentences usually have more than one intonational phrase. Intonational phrases in longer sentences are signaled by a slight pause in the utterance. Following are several utterances comprised of one, two, and three intonational phrases. One intonational phrase:

Two intonational phrases:

I want to go home.

I got a blue scarf, not a red one.

Yes!

You took my umbrella, didn’t you?

Three intonational phrases: The boys, who ate the candy, got sick. Makenzie, who is my best friend, took me to the ball game.

There are two intonational phrases in the accusation “You took my umbrella, didn’t you?” The words in italic type would most likely have the highest voice pitch. Say the sentence out loud, paying particular attention to the changes in the pitch of the voice. You will notice that the highest voice pitch occurs on the words “you” and “didn’t.” Similarly, in the sentence “The boys, who ate the candy, got sick,” there are

216 Connected Speech three distinct intonational phrases (separated by commas). You should notice that the highest voice pitch occurs on the words “boys,” “candy,” and “sick.” The syllable that receives the greatest pitch change in any particular intonational phrase is called the tonic syllable (Ladefoged & Johnson, 2015). Likewise, the emphasis given to this syllable is referred to as the tonic accent. Each intonational phrase is characterized by only one tonic accent. In the question “Are you done?” the tonic accent would fall on the final word “done.” The tonic accent would be located on the second syllable of the word “confused” in the statement “He was confused” because word stress is normally found on the second syllable of that word. The tonic accent is most often located at the end of an intonational phrase (Ladefoged & Johnson, 2015). However, when a speaker uses contrastive stress to draw attention to a particular word in an utterance, the tonic accent would be located on the stressed syllable. Compare the two pronunciations of the following sentence. It won’t rain today. It won’t rain today. In the first example, the tonic accent would be located on the last syllable of the utterance (“It won’t rain toˈday”). In the second example, the tonic accent would be located on the second word (“It ˈwon’t rain today”). Intonational phrases are characterized by the direction of their pitch change; they are generally classified as falling or rising. If the receptionist at your doctor’s office asks you, “Do you have an appointment?” you would hear a rise in intonation at the end of the question. If the receptionist states, “The doctor will see you in a fewminutes,” you would probably not hear a rising intonation pattern. The voice pitch would most likely fall at the end of the utterance. Falling intonational phrases accompany complete statements and commands and are indicative of the finality of an utterance (Jones, 1963). In the sentence “The boys went home” (spoken as an unemotional statement), the voice pitch falls throughout the utterance. There is a general fall, or declination, in the pitch of the voice over the length of most neutrally spoken statements. Some other examples of falling intonational phrases are evident in utterances such as the following: I guess.

That should do it.

It’s time to go.

I like riding roller coasters.

Falling intonational phrases also are typical in utterances comprised of Wh-questions. Wh-questions are those that begin an utterance with the words “where,” “what,” “why,” “when,” “which,” and “how.” Examples include: Why did you go?

Where is your friend?

What’s your favorite color? When did you arrive?

Rising intonational phrases (typical of questions and incomplete thoughts) usually indicate some uncertainty on the speaker’s part (Jones, 1963; Pike, 1945). As previously indicated, yes/no questions have a rising intonation pattern. Examples include: Are you coming? He did?

Is it time yet? Can you?

Rising intonational phrases also occur with tag questions. His name is Richard, isn’t it? I am gonna just hang out, okay?

They’re watching reruns again, aren’t they? He likes Claudette, doesn’t he?

Chapter Seven 217

Rising intonational phrases also are common when reciting a list of items. For example: My favorite colors are red, blue, and green. Say the previous sentence aloud. Listen to the rise in the pitch of your voice following the words “red” and “blue.” Each rise in pitch alerts the listener that more information is forthcoming in the utterance. The voice pitch then falls toward the end of the sentence. The examples given represent only a few of the more common intonation patterns seen in American English. In addition, the various examples given are only suggestions of the way the utterances could be spoken. It is possible to pronounce any of the examples in a variety of ways. For instance, the sentence “I can’t.” could be spoken as a statement (falling intonation) or as a yes/no question (rising intonation)—that is, “I can’t?”—depending on the speaker’s intent. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.10

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

Exercise 7.14 Indicate whether the intonational phrases in the following utterances are generally rising or falling. Circle the appropriate response. 1. When will you leave?

Rising

Falling

2. Is your brother home?

Rising

Falling

3. I need to go to the library.

Rising

Falling

4. What’s your favorite season?

Rising

Falling

5. Did you get paid yet?

Rising

Falling

6. The dog ran away.

Rising

Falling

7. Sophie is my oldest friend.

Rising

Falling

8. How did you know about that?

Rising

Falling

9. Honest?!?

Rising

Falling

10. I’m sure!!!

Rising

Falling

In addition to signaling intonation differences, voice pitch is also used in many “tone” and “pitch-accent” languages to distinguish words that share the same consonants and vowels. In Mandarin Chinese (a tone language), the syllable ma means “mother” with a high-level tone, “hemp” with a low-rising tone, “horse” with a low-dipping tone, and “scorn” with a high-falling tone. In Japanese (a pitch-accent language), /há∫i/ (with first-syllable accent) means “chopsticks” and /ha∫í/ (with second-syllable accent) means “bridge” (Ota etal., 2018). In these languages, pitch level/contour distinguishes words that would have been effectively homophones. In other words, tone and pitch accent are phonemic just like segmental phonemes. The use of tone and pitch accent for word distinctions may seem novel at first sight to speakers of non-tonal languages (e.g.,English). In fact, tone languages make up the majority of the world’s languages (Yip, 2002). Research on tone languages has also contributed to our understanding of segmental and suprasegmental aspects of speech production, perception, and acquisition (C.-Y. Lee & Wiener, 2020; L. Singh etal., 2019).

218 Connected Speech

Tempo

Tempo is the term used to describe the durational aspect of connected speech. Because timing, or duration of articulatory events, affects entire utterances, tempo also is considered to be a suprasegmental feature of speech. Obviously, the overall rate of speech plays a role in determining the tempo. For adults, the average speech rate is on the order of approximately 5 to 5.5 syllables per second (Calvert, 1986). Tempo also is determined by the duration of individual phonemes and the duration of pauses located between syllables, words, phrases, and sentences. Duration of IndividualPhonemes Each of the phonemes in English, when spoken in isolation, has an inherent duration. As a rule, diphthongs have a greater duration than vowels, and vowels have a greater duration than the consonants. Among the consonants, the glides and liquids have the greatest duration; the stop consonants have the shortest duration. The duration of any individual phoneme changes once placed in connected speech. For instance, you already know that the stressed syllable of a word is longer in duration than an unstressed syllable due to the increased duration of its individual phonemes.Refer back to Figure6.8 in Chapter6. This figure shows spectrograms of the words /ˈpɹoʊbet/ and /pɹoˈtɛst/. Recall that the diphthong in the first (stressed) syllable of “probate” is longer in duration (129 msec.) than the vowel in the first (unstressed) syllable of “protest” (76 msec.). It follows that the first syllable in “probate” is longer in duration than the first syllable in the word “protest.” The inherent length of individual phonemes also varies depending on phonetic context. Recall from Chapter6 that vowels preceding voiceless consonants are shorter in duration than vowels preceding voiced consonants. For example, the vowel /æ/ in the word “batch” is shorter than /æ/ in “badge”(refer to the spectrograms in Figure6.15). Vowels in open syllables also are longer than vowels in closed syllables. Compare the length of the vowel /i/ in the words “beet” and “bee” by saying them aloud. It should be evident that /i/ in the open syllable “bee” is longer in duration. Figure7.1 shows spectrograms of the words “beet” and “bee.” The duration of /i/ in “beet” is 245 msec., approximately one-half the duration of /i/ in “bee” (457 msec.). Clearly, the vowel in the open syllable is longer. The IPA uses a colon to indicate that a phoneme has been lengthened. Therefore, the words “batch” and “badge” could be transcribed as [bætʃ] and [bæːdʒ], respectively. Similarly, the words “beet” and “bee” could be transcribed as [bit] and [biː]. In connected speech, the final phoneme of one word and the initial phoneme of the following word may often be the same, as in “Yes, Susie.” Say this phrase aloud. You will notice that there is really no break in the production of the two /s/ phonemes. Instead, you most likely hear a prolonged /s/ phoneme. This phrase would

Figure 7.1 Comparison of vowel length in open and closedsyllables. b

t˺

245 msec.

457 msec.

Chapter Seven 219

be transcribed [jɛsːuzɪ] using the lengthening diacritic to indicate the elongated /s/ phoneme. Note that the syllable boundary disappears due to the prolonged /s/. Some other examples of this phenomenon include: but, Tom

[bʌtːɑm]

men know

[mɛnːoʊ]

with them

[wɪðːɛm]

call Linda

[kɑlːɪndə]

Despite the systematic patterns of duration differences, consonant or vowel length is not used phonemically in English as it is in some languages. For example, there is no phonemic distinction between [bædʒ] and [bæːdʒ], or between [bætʃ] and [bæːtʃ], even though vowel length can be used to distinguish [bætʃ] and [bæːdʒ] by signaling the voicing of the word-final consonant. In contrast, length is phonemic in some languages. For example, in Japanese, vowel length is used to distinguish between /i/ “stomach” and /ı ́:/ “good” as well as /séki/ “seat” and /sé:ki/ “century” (Hirata, 2004). In Italian, consonant length is used to distinguish pala “shovel” versus palla “ball” and pena “pain” versus penna “pen” (Di Benedetto etal., 2021).

Exercise 7.15 Select the one word from each pair that would have the longer vowel. Transcribe that word using the [ː] diacritic. Example:

PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.11

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

key

keep

[kiː]

1. peace

peas

2. leave

leaf

3. rude

root

4. spa

spot

5. lack

lag

6. toot

too

Exercise 7.16 Transcribe the following utterances, using the [ː] diacritic where appropriate. Example: kite tail

[kaɪtːeɪl]

1. rice soup

2. cotton netting

3. big guns

4. tail light

5. calm morning

6. bar room

7. leaf fire

8. push Sherri

220 Connected Speech Pauses and Juncture in ConnectedSpeech Pauses occur in connected speech for a number of reasons. First, a pause may simply indicate that the speaker is taking a breath. Second, pauses may indicate hesitations on the part of a speaker as in the following, “His name was...um...um...oh, I remember...Joe.” Third, pauses are used in conversation to indicate the presence of a new thought or to emphasize a particular point. Examine the utterance “I want to go to the movies, but I don’t have any money.” The comma, which separates the two clauses, marks a pause in the utterance when it is said aloud. The speaker pauses because two ideas are being presented. The speaker needs to emphasize the importance of each idea, especially the latter. Similarly, there would be a pause at each of the commas in the utterance “I need to buy shampoo, tissue, bath soap, and deodorant,” signaling the identity of each of the items. Recall that each comma also indicates the beginning of a separate phrase, with an accompanying change in intonation. Juncture is the term used to indicate the way in which syllables and words are linked together in connected speech. External juncture is the term given to a pause that connects two intonational phrases. (That is, the connecting pause is external to the phrase.) The IPA symbols [ǀ] and [ǁ] are used to mark external juncture in connected speech. The single-bar diacritic [ǀ] is used to indicate the presence of a short pause; the double bar [ǁ] diacritic is used to indicate longer pauses. The sentence “Yes, I would like to go, but I can’t” would be transcribed as [jɛs ǀ aɪ wʊd laɪk tə ɡoʊ ǀ bət aɪ kænt ǁ ]. When transcribing connected speech, it sometimes becomes necessary to indicate the presence of a pause between words in the same intonational phrase because the transition between syllables may become blurred. Consider the utterances “I scream” and “ice cream.” They share an identical phoneme string, that is, /aɪskɹim/. To indicate the pause between “I” and “scream” in the first utterance, the [+] diacritic is used: [aɪ + skrim]. The syllables [aɪ + skrim] are said to have open internal juncture because there is a pause between the syllables. The transcription of the second utterance, “ice cream” [aɪskɹim], has no pause between the two syllables. Therefore, [aɪskɹim] has close internal juncture. No special symbols are needed to indicate close internal juncture because there is no pause between the syllables. Another example of open and close internal juncture occurs with the utterances night rate → [naɪt + ɹeɪt] (open) and nitrate → [naɪtɹeɪt] (close). Now examine the following three phrase pairs: Ex. A:

“its tongue”

[ɪts+tʌŋ]

“it stung”

[ɪt+stʌŋ]

Ex. C:

“grade A”

[ɡɹeɪd+eɪ]

“gray day”

[ɡɹeɪ+deɪ]

Ex. B:

“why cheat”

[waɪ+tʃit]

“white sheet” [waɪt+ʃit]

Each example illustrates two phrases with a shift in open internal juncture. Note that a plus sign diacritic is warranted in all cases to indicate the pause between syllables. In each example, the syllable boundary (where the pause is taken) is determined by the intent of the utterance. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.12

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

Exercise 7.17 Use the single-bar [ǀ] and double-bar diacritics [ǁ] to indicate external juncture in the following utterances. All punctuation marks have been omitted. Example:

[When I’m sleepy ǀ I go to bed ǁ]

1. I want hot dogs ice cream and cotton candy 2. They left didn’t they Continues

Chapter Seven 221

Exercise 7.17 (Cont.) 3. The family who lived next door moved away 4. What is her problem 5. My uncle the dentist is 34years old

Complete Assignments 7-3 and 7-4.

Chapter Summary ■

■

In connected speech, speech sound segments (phonemes) in words are often modified in their production in certain phonetic contexts. For example, phonemes in connected speech often take on the phonetic character of neighboring sounds, in a process known as assimilation. Assimilation refers to the realized changes in the identity of phonemes brought about by coarticulation. Assimilation also refers to both allophonic and phonemic changes brought about by phonetic environment. Regressive assimilation occurs when the identity of a phoneme is modified due to another phoneme that follows it (right-to-left or anticipatory assimilation). Progressive assimilation occurs when a phoneme takes on the identity of another phoneme that precedes it in time (left-to-right or perseverative assimilation). Several other segmental changes in speech production also occur during connected speech. The deletion of phonemes (or entire syllables) is termed elision, e.g.,/wɪnɚ/ for “winter” and /kæmrə/ for “camera.” Epenthesis is the result of the addition of phonemes

■

during word production, e.g.,epenthesis of /k/ in /lɛŋkθs/ for “lengths.” Metathesis is the transposition of sounds in a word, e.g.,/ɛfələnt/ for “elephant.” Vowel reduction occurs when a vowel is produced, not in its full form (full weight) but in a weak form, with the vowel being centralized, e.ɡ., /jɚ/ for “your” and /əz/ for “as.” In contrast with isolated words, connected speech is characterized by modifications in the suprasegmental aspects of speech, including changes in stress, timing of words, and intonation patterns. Each sentence has one word that receives primary stress. The stressed word is related to the intent of the utterance, including provision of new information. Falling intonation patterns accompany neutrally spoken statements and “wh”-questions. Rising intonation patterns are typical of yes/no questions and incomplete thoughts. Tempo is the term given to the durational aspects of speech, including speech rate, which is determined, in part, by duration of individual phonemes and duration of pauses.

Review Exercises A. For each of the following pronunciations, indicate the phonemic change that occurred as a result of assimilation. Also indicate the change in place in articulation. Example: bad boy

1. can make

2. How’s your mother? 3. gin game

4. lead pipe

5. has shaken 6. red gown

Pronunciation

Phoneme change

Change from alveolar to:

[bæbːɔɪ]

b/d

bilabial

[kæmːeɪk]

/haʊʒɚ mʌðɚ/

/dʒɪŋ ɡeɪm/

[lɛb̚ paɪp]

/hæʒ ʃeɪkn̩/

[ɹɛɡ̚ ɡaʊn]

222 Connected Speech B. Transcribe each of the following items after eliding the indicated phoneme. Example:

aptly

/æplɪ/

bends

/d/

land mine

/d/

counter

/t/

winter

can of worms

5. 6. 7. 8.

Transcription

/t/

2. 3.

Elided phoneme

/t/ /f/

twelfths

/θ/

What’s her problem?

/h/

wept loudly

/t/

C. Transcribe each of the following utterances, first in citation form and then in casual form. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.13

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

1. I want to go home. 2. Let me see your book. 3. Could you move a little to the right? 4. Did John ever get paid? 5. Why did she leave so early? 6. It is raining cats and dogs. 7. When are you going to leave?

Chapter Seven 223

8. You have got to be kidding!

9. Who is going to rake the leaves tonight?

10. I want to wax my truck tomorrow morning.

D. Rewrite each of the following in English orthography (citation form). 1. [dʒɛvɚɡoɾəðəsɝkəsǁ]

2. [wɛndədʃilivdʒɔɹdʒəǁ]

3. [maɪsɪsɾɚɡɑɾənubɔɪfɹɛndǁ]

4. [ɡɪmɪədeɪɚtutədəsaɪdǁ]

5. [aɪmɡʊnəhæftəseɪnofɚnaʊǁ]

6. [aɪθɪŋkɪtsɡʊnəɹeɪniðɚtədeɪɚtəmɑɹoʊǁ]

7. [wʊdʒəɛvɚθɪŋkəduənðætfɚmiǁ]

8. [dujəθɪŋkðətsuzn̩tʊkənəfəvəmǁ]

9. [əmʃɚðətðɛɹɡʊnətɛljəwətʃənidtəduətǁ]

10. [tɹaɪəzimaɪt ǀ hidʒəstkʊdəntduwətʃiwɑnədǁ]

PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.14

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

E. Indicate primary and secondary stress, where appropriate, for each of the following three- and four-syllable words. Keep in mind that some syllables in the words are unstressed. Use a dictionary to help identify any syllable boundaries of which you are unsure. 1. courageous

6. plurality

3. majestic

8. clandestine

2. terrified

4. asthmatic 5. Plexiglas

7. mandatory

9. flamboyant

10. creation

224 Connected Speech 11. computation

16. colonial

13. bulletin

18. independent

12. cranberry

17. mercenary

14. surrendered

19. October

15. semantics

20. ballerina

F. 1. Transcribe each of the following word pairs. Be sure to indicate primary and secondary stress. 2. Compare your vowel transcriptions in each pair (for the vowels represented by the bold letters). If vowel reduction results when going from the first to the second word, place an “X” in the “reduced” column. If your transcription indicates a change from a reduced vowel to the full form of the vowel, place an “X” in the “full” column. Reduced Example:

valid /ˈvælɪd/ 1. origin

validity /vəˈlɪdɪɾɪ/

Full

originate

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. microscope

microscopy

3. aristocrat

aristocracy

4. strategy

strategic

5. maniac

maniacal

6. homogenous

homogeneous

7. paralyze

paralysis

8. felony

felonious

9. perspire

perspiration

10. repeat

repetitious

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.15

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

G. Indicate with an “X” whether the following utterances have an overall rising or falling intonation contour. Rising

Falling

_________

1. I got a sweater for my birthday.

_________

3. The girls had spaghetti for supper.

_________

2. Are you happy?

4. Are you positive?

_________

_________ _________ _________

Chapter Seven 225

Rising

Falling

6. Were you late for work today?

_________

8. Did you buy a new CD?

_________

5. When you’re finished, go to bed.

7. Let me get back to you. 9. What do you mean?

10. Is that your idea of a joke?

_________

_________ _________ _________

_________ _________ _________ _________ _________

H. Use the diacritical markings [ǀ] or [ǁ] to indicate external juncture for each of the following utterances. All punctuation marks have been omitted. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.16

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

1. If I want your help you’ll be the first to know 2. Maybe I will maybe I won’t

3. They bought a new house didn’t they

4. The girls who went swimming all got a cold 5. I can’t really make up my mind

6. I scream you scream we all scream for ice cream 7. When are you leaving on vacation

8. Are your cousins coming for a visit or not 9. Do you have ants in your pants

10. I quit my job but only when I was sure I could get another I. Transcribe each of the following utterances in casual form, indicating a lengthened phoneme [ː] when necessary. Also use the diacritical markings [ǀ] or [ǁ] to indicate external juncture when necessary. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.17

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

Example: Did you have a good day? [dɪdʒəhævəɡʊdːdeɪǁ]

1. I caught my cat Tom by the tail.

2. Which shampoo did you buy at the store?

3. Would you put the white tablecloth on the table, please?

4. Mom might take me shopping if I get good grades.

5. Have you finished taping the TV special yet?

226 Connected Speech 6. With them, it’s hard to tell what they are thinking.

7. Please give me your phone number before you leave.

8. Clem made a home run at the big game last Tuesday.

9. Teddy and Farrell love to play outside with the water sprinkler.

10. I won’t take any more of the junk Ken hands out.

J. Each of the following sentences will be spoken by two different speakers. Transcribe each of the utterances in casual form. Be sure to use single-bar or double-bar diacritics to indicate external juncture. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.18

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

1. Why can’t you ever act your age?

2. Why, oh why did I ever leave Iowa?

3. When did they say their flight was?

4. I will probably go home tomorrow or the day after.

5. Where did she ever get an idea like that?

6. You have got to be pulling my leg.

Chapter Seven 227

7. My friends S.B. and Dale are going to pick me up at 3:00.

8. Why did you repaint the barn already?

9. They are going to tell you what you need.

10. Did she take two of them? Nah, she took four.

K. Mark sentence stress for each of the following sentences using the appropriate IPA notation. Each sentence will be spoken twice, with varying sentence stress. Pay attention to the differences in stress between the two pronunciations. PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.19

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

1. a. The clock is running slow. b. The clock is running slow. 2. a. Allison got married in New York. b. Allison got married in New York. 3. a. Christina bought a new backpack. b. Christina bought a new backpack. 4. a. Dr. Mills is my favorite professor. b. Dr. Mills is my favorite professor. 5. a. The report is due in five weeks. b. The report is due in five weeks. 6. a. Ryan and Mindy went to Hawaii for their honeymoon. b. Ryan and Mindy went to Hawaii for their honeymoon. 7. a. Patti’s favorite jeans are ripped in the knees. b. Patti’s favorite jeans are ripped in the knees. 8. a. Did you ride the new roller coaster? b. Did you ride the new roller coaster? 9. a. Sid got new skis for his vacation in Utah. b. Sid got new skis for his vacation in Utah. 10. a. I want to see that movie tonight at 8. b. I want to see that movie tonight at 8.

228 Connected Speech

Study Questions 1. What is coarticulation, and what is assimilation? What is the difference between these two processes? 2. What is the difference between regressive and progressive assimilation? What are other terms that could be used to represent the same processes? 3. Define the following processes associated with connected speech: a. elision b. epenthesis c. metathesis 4. Describe the process of vowel reduction. 5. What is the cause of the change in the casual pronunciation of the following words? was shared → /wʌʒ ʃɛɹd/ bat girl → /bæk ɡɝl/

tan car → /tæŋ kɑɹ/

would you → /wʊd ʒu/

6. What is the difference between a syllable that receives secondary stress and a syllable that is unstressed? What is the difference in the way these levels of stress are marked? 7. How is sentence stress marked? 8. What is the difference between given and new information?

9. What is a content word? What is a function word? 10. Define the terms intonation and intonational phrase. 11. When would you observe (1) a rising intonational phrase and (2) a falling intonational phrase? 12. How does phonetic environment affect vowel duration? 13. What is the difference between internal and external juncture? 14. What is the difference between open and close internal juncture? 15. What role do pauses play in connected speech?

Online Resources Search online for ThoughtCo Intonation and Stress. This website provides a basic introduction to stress and intonation in English, as well as other languages. Search online for Teaching Intonation and Stress—Ted Power. This website is a resource guide for teachers of English as a second language. Search online for Assimilation in Spoken English—Ted Power. This webpage gives multiple examples of assimilatory changes in words in spoken English.

Chapter Seven 229

Assignment 7-1 Name ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.20

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

Transcribe each of the following utterances, first in citation form and then in casual form. Only the casual form will be presented in the audio file. 1. I bet you that you are going to win the race. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. We really have to study tonight for the phonetics test. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3. Tell Sherry that she will have to go to the store to get some bacon and eggs. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4. My friend Caroline is having a party on the third of next month. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 5. Bob can always finish his homework when he gets home. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 6. Let me think about your answer for aminute. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 7. We have just got to clean the house tomorrow. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 8. Don’t forget to pick up our cleaning on the way to work. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 9. I am going to miss you when you move to the country. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 10. Please share those ideas with the rest of the group. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Chapter Seven 231

Assignment 7-2 Name __________________________________________________________________________________________________ PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.21

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

Indicate primary and secondary stress (where appropriate) for the following words: 1. stethoscope

16. automate

2. zoology

17. symmetrical

3. synchronized

18. stupendous

4. latitude

19. flirtatious

5. execute

20. distribute

6. conversion

21. chlorinate

7. voyager

22. magazine

8. triangle

23. openness

9. nomadic

24. kitchenette

10. infinite

25. gullible

11. fluoridate

26. flamingo

12. December

27. evasive

13. detonate

28. caravan

14. vulcanize

29. modernize

15. bronchitis

30. comprehend

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Chapter Seven 233

Assignment 7-3 Name __________________________________________________________________________________________________ PearsoneTextbook Audio Practice 7.22

Access the audio file for this practice exercise in your Pearson eTextbook. Alternatively, you can access the audio file by scanning the QR code.

Each of the following items will be spoken by two different speakers. Transcribe the following utterances in casual form. Be sure to use single-bar and/or double-bar diacritics to indicate external juncture. Also use the lengthening diacritic [ː] when appropriate. 1. You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make him drink. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. I am not sure we have those shoes in your size; they only come in sizes seven, eight and one-half, or nine. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. That man said he would drive around back to pick up his packages. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. My professor remembered to bring in the model of the larynx; it was really helpful. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. When you are finished typing the paper, remember to come over so we can celebrate. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. Miss Smith thinks that her cousin Neil will be coming over for a visit today. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. My niece Sarah’s favorite colors have always been magenta, turquoise, and chartreuse. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. Don’t tell her I told you, but Jeannene said she has always been neutral when it comes to that topic. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. If you stay a little while longer, I’ll give you a piece of that terrific carrot cake. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________

10. Now, remember, the game begins sharply at 4:30. Don’t forget to bring your bat and glove. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Chapter Seven 235

Assignment 7-4 Name __________________________________________________________________________________________________ Rewrite each of the following questions in English orthography. Then write your answer to each one, both in IPA and in English orthography. 1. [ðə nʌmbɚ əv deɪz wɪtʃ əkɜ˞ ɪn ə lip jɪɹ ɪz.....ǁ] __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. [ðə sɪɾɪ ɪn wɪtʃ ðə stætʃu əv lɪbɚɾɪ ɪz loʊkeɾəd ɪz noʊn əz.....ǁ] __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. [kɑɹɾɪɑlədʒɪsts ǀ dɚmətɑlədʒɪsts ǀ ænəsθizɪɑlədʒɪsts ǀ n̩ːɚɑlədʒɪsts ǀ ɚ ɑl taɪps əv.....ǁ] __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. [ɪn ə tɛn dɪdʒɪt foʊn nʌmbɚ ǀ ðə fɜ˞ st θɹi nʌmbɚz ɑɹːəfɜ˞ dtuæzðə.....ǁ] __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. [əsum ju səksɛfʊlɪ fɪnɪʃ jɚ fɹɛʃmən jɪɹ əv kɑlədʒ ǀ ju wɪl ɹətɜ˞ njɚ sɛkənd jɪɹ æzə.....ǁ] __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. [ðə nem əv ðə hɑlɪdeɪ wɛn tʃɪldɹən ɡo tɹɪkɚtɹiɾɪŋ ɪz noʊn əz.....ǁ] __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. [əv ældʒəbɹə ǀ hɪstɚɪ ǀ dʒiɔɡɹəfɪ ǀ ænd saɪkɔlədʒɪ ǀ ðə sʌbdʒɛkt wɪtʃ ɪnvɑlvz ðə stʌdɪ əv mæθəmæɾɪks ɪz.....ǁ] __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. [wɛn ju æd ðə nʌmbɚz twɛnɪ θɹɪ plʌs əlɛvən təɡɛðɚ ǀ ðə ɹəzɑlt ikwəlz.....ǁ] __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. [ə tɹæfɪk saɪn wɪtʃ ɪz ʃeɪpt laɪk ən ɑktəɡɑn ɪz kɑmənlɪ ɹəfɜ˞ d tu æz ə.....ǁ] __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

10. [ðəsiz̩n əv ðəjɪɹ ǀ wɛn ðə livz tʃeɪndʒ ðɛɹ kʌlɚz ɪz kɑld iðɚ fɑl ɔɹ.....ǁ] __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ From L. H. Small, C.-Y. Lee, Fundamentals of Phonetics: A Practical Guide for Students, 6th edition. Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter 8

Transcription of Speech SoundDisorders Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you will be able to: 8.1 Describe typical phonological development. 8.2 Describe and transcribe phonological processes. 8.3 Use diacritics in transcription of typical and disordered speech. 8.4 Use non-English phonemes in transcription of typical and

disordered speech in English.

8.5 Discuss factors you need to consider to increase accuracy in the

practice of phonetic transcription.

The purpose of this chapter is to introduce you to the application of phonetics in a clinical setting. As future clinicians, you will be faced with the task of evaluating a client’s speech behavior to determine whether that client is in need of intervention. Therefore, you should have an understanding of the process of typical speech-language development. In addition, you will need to know how to evaluate your client to determine whether there is a problem with speech and language production. Ultimately, if the client is in need of intervention, you will need to know how to generate a plan for treatment. A thorough discussion of these topics is beyond the scope of this text, however. This material will be covered in other courses in your curriculum that focus on phonological development and disorders. The terms articulation disorder and phonological disorder both have been used by hearing and speech professionals over the years to characterize a client who experiences difficulty with speech sound production. The term articulation disorder usually refers to a person who has a problem producing only a few phonemes, or whose speech errors are tied to the motoric aspects of speech production. Phonological disorder, on the other hand, generally refers to an individual who has difficulty with the sound system of a language and utilizing the rules that govern the combination and order of phonemes in words (Elbert & Gierut, 1986). More recently, professionals have adopted the use of the term speech sound disorder to include all disorders involving speech sound production. In this text, the term speech sound disorder is used in this manner. Speech-language pathologists generally will administer a battery of tests to assess speech production ability. Articulation tests attempt to systematically identify the correct or incorrect usage of phonemes in a child’s repertoire by having the child name objects, or pictures of objects, with which they are familiar. Consonants and consonant clusters (and sometimes vowels) are evaluated in various positions

Chapter Eight 237

of words to determine whether the individual phonemes of English can be produced correctly in differing phonetic contexts in an age-appropriate manner. Spontaneous, connected speech samples are elicited by engaging the client in conversation about hobbies, favorite activities, or a favorite TV show or movie. With very young children, spontaneous speech samples may be obtained while children describe pictures in a book or while they play with toys. The spontaneous, connected speech samples are transcribed and analyzed for age-appropriate behavior. Once testing is completed, it is possible to analyze a client’s speech productions in utterances of varying lengths (i.e.,syllables, words, phrases, and sentences). The results of testing ultimately help determine the therapeutic approach selected. It should be emphasized that allophonic variations in connected speech(discussed in Chapter7) are not speech sound disorders. Sound changes due to coarticulation are an inherent and natural part of typical speech production. For example, the phoneme /t/ is typically produced as an aspirated variant in a word-initial position, “tea” [thi]; an unaspirated variant following an alveolar fricative, “stay” [steɪ]; a tap in an intervocalic position, “better” [bɛɾɚ]; and a glottal stop before a syllabic nasal, “button” [bʌʔn̩]. Using a glottal stop, tap, or unaspirated variant therefore reflects a speaker’s knowledge of systematic phonological rules, not speech sound disorders. Similarly, it takes time for children to acquire speech sounds and phonological rules; therefore, it is important not to mistake children’s typical development for speech sound disorders.

Typical PhonologicalDevelopment Learning Objective 8.1 Describe typical phonological development.

Many studies dating back to the 1930s have attempted to delineate the order of phoneme acquisition in typically developing children (Poole, 1934; Prather etal., 1975; Smit etal., 1990; Templin, 1957; Wellman etal., 1931). These developmental studies all examined a large number of children in order to answer the basic question, “What is the age at which children typically develop and master English speech sounds?” Without this knowledge, it would be impossible to know whether a child is developing speech in a typical manner. When comparing the findings from different developmental phonological studies, it becomes apparent that the ages cited for typical development of individual speech sounds vary (see Table8.1). For instance, according to Sander (1972), /ɹ/ is mastered by the age of 6;0 (meaning 6years; 0 months). However, the research of Smit and colleagues (1990) indicates that /ɹ/ is not mastered until the age of 8;0. The disparity in findings between developmental studies is common and may be due to several factors. These factors may include (1) differences in the socioeconomic status of the children being examined, (2) differences in the number of subjects being studied, and (3) the way in which a speech sample is obtained by the experimenter. For example, children’s speech productions may be obtained spontaneously (in response to questions asked by the experimenter or by naming pictures or objects) or by imitating words spoken by the examiner. Another methodological discrepancy between developmental phonology studies may be related to the way in which sound mastery is defined. Mastery is usually defined as the age at which a particular phoneme is produced with some degree of accuracy (usually from 75 to 100percent). The actual percentage of mastery may vary from study to study, depending on the researcher’s own definition of the term. Sander (1972) suggested that phoneme development in children be viewed not only in terms of sound mastery but also in terms of “customary production.” Customary production is defined as the age at which a particular phoneme is produced with greater than 50percent accuracy, in at least two word positions (Sander, 1972). Sander defined mastery as the age at which 90 to 100percent correct production of a phoneme occurs in all word positions (i.e.,at the beginning, in the middle, and at the end of words). In this manner, developmental data can be presented for each phoneme in English as a

238 Transcription of Speech SoundDisorders

TABLE 8.1 Developmental Phonological Data from Sander (1972) and Smit and colleagues (1990). Data are presented as years and months. For example, 6;0 means 6years and 0 months. Sander (1972)

Smit and colleagues (1990)

Phoneme

>50% Customary Production

90% Mastery

Girls

Fundamentals of Phonetics A Practical Guide For Students Larry Small - PDFCOFFEE.COM (2025)

References